{"id":8218,"date":"2026-07-06T15:10:19","date_gmt":"2026-07-06T13:10:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/?p=8218"},"modified":"2026-07-06T16:01:25","modified_gmt":"2026-07-06T14:01:25","slug":"mdwp017-010","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp017-010\/","title":{"rendered":"Appearance and Prestige"},"content":{"rendered":"<h2 class=\"subtitle\">Phenomena of Keyboard Instrument Decoration in the Sixteenth Century<\/p>\n<h2>\n<h3 class=\"author\"><em>Heidelinde Pollerus<\/em><\/h3>\n<p><head><\/p>\n<style>\n        .tsquotation strong {\n            font-weight: bold;\n        }\n        .tsquotation em {\n            font-style: italic !important;\n        }\n.tsquotation {\n line-height: 1.4 !important;   \n}\n        .bibliography {\n            margin-top: -1em !important;\n            padding-left: 22px;\n            text-indent: -22px;\n        }\nfigure {\n            margin: 0;\n }<\/p>\n<p> table {\n      line-height: 1.4;\n    border-collapse: collapse;\n    width: 100%;\nfont-family: inherit;\n  }<\/p>\n<p>table p {\n      margin: 0;\n    }\n  th, td {\n    border: 1px solid black;\n    padding: 8px;\n    text-align: left;\n    vertical-align: top;\n  }\n  thead tr {\n    background-color: #e0e0e0;\n }\n  th {\n    text-transform: none;\n  }<\/p>\n<p>td ol {\n  margin: 0 !important;\n  padding-left: 0; \n}<\/p>\n<p>td li {\n  margin: 0;\n}<\/p>\n<\/style>\n<p><\/head><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<br \/>\n<div class=\"one_half\">\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class='bdaia-btns bdaia-btn-medium' style=\"background:#b2b2b2 !important;color:#000000 !important;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp017-009\/\" style=\"color:#000000 !important;\">&#129028;<\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"one_half last\">\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><span class='bdaia-btns bdaia-btn-medium' style=\"background:#b2b2b2 !important;color:#000000 !important;\"><a 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id=\"zp-ID-8218-4511395-9BJZ6B8F\" data-zp-author-date='Pollerus-2026' data-zp-date-author='2026-Pollerus' data-zp-date='2026' data-zp-year='2026' data-zp-itemtype='bookSection' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; padding-left: 1em; text-indent:-1em;\">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\">Pollerus, Heidelinde. 2026. \u201cAppearance and Prestige: Phenomena of Keyboard Instrument Decoration in the Sixteenth Century.\u201d In <i>\u2018Per Aures Ad Animum\u2019. The Harpsichord in the Sixteenth Century II: Italy<\/i>, edited by Augusta Campagne and Markus Grassl. mdwPress. <a class='zp-ItemURL' href='https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21939\/harpsichord-italy-16c'>https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21939\/harpsichord-italy-16c<\/a>. <a title='Cite in RIS Format' class='zp-CiteRIS' data-zp-cite='api_user_id=4511395&item_key=9BJZ6B8F' href='javascript:void(0);'>Cite<\/a> <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\n\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-zp-SEO-Content -->\n\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-List -->\n\t<\/div><!--.zp-Zotpress-->\n\n\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"bdaia-toggle close\"><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-open\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-up\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-close\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-down\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><div class=\"toggle-content\"><p>\n<a href=\"#1\">Pictorial Sources<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#2\">Written Sources<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#3\">Preserved Instruments and Instrument Lids as Sources with Limited Informative Value<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#4\">Representation and Projection<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#5\">Epochal Spillover<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#6\">Mottos<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#7\">Lid Paintings and their Painters<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#8\">Soundboard and Rose<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#9\">Conclusion<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#10\">Bibliography<\/a><br \/>\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<hr>\n<p><!-- \n\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\">[btn btnlink=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/10.1515_9783839425015-001.pdf\" btnsize=\"medium\" bgcolor=\"#b2b2b2\" txtcolor=\"#000000\" btnnewt=\"1\" nofollow=\"1\"]CHAPTER PDF <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\" style=\"vertical-align: middle\" alt=\"Download-Logo\" width=\"17\" height=\"17\">[\/btn]\n\n --><\/p>\n<p>Appearance and prestige \u2013 two perennially interrelated terms. Where historical keyboard instruments are concerned, \u2018appearance\u2019 naturally refers to an object\u2019s purely visual outward effect. However, such appearance is closely related to the meaning and reputation of the object as well as its purpose. This functions on two levels. One is that of the esteem in which the instrument and music are held, which is expressed via suitable artistic means. The other is that of the object\u2019s socio-cultural function as a status symbol and surface for self-representation that serves to bolster its owner\u2019s or commissioner\u2019s reputation. Exploration of the blurred boundaries and connections between appearance and prestige shall constitute the central thread of the investigation here.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn1\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref1\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"1\">Pictorial Sources<\/h4>\n<p>Generally speaking, sources illustrating the decoration on 16th-century keyboard instruments are scarce. Only during the 17th century did the depictions of instruments in paintings see a sharp increase in quantity and quality, as can be seen in works by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn2\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref2\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Jan Molenaer,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn3\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref3\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Gonzales Coques,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn4\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref4\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Jan Steen,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn5\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref5\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Jan Vermeer,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn6\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref6\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Gabri\u00ebl Metsu<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn7\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref7\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>7<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and others. Only relatively few 16th-century panel paintings or engravings can be used as pictorial sources. Instruments are often shown just partially or so unclearly that no conclusions concerning their decoration can be drawn, as is the case in works such as <em>Saint Cecilia<\/em> by Michiel Coxcie, 1569, at the Prado in Madrid, <em>Allegory of Music or Hearing: Apollo and the Muses on Mount Parnassus <\/em>by Paolo Fiammingo, 1580\u201396 (auctioned at Sotheby\u2019s on 9&#160;Dec. 2021), or <em>The Concert <\/em>by Leandro Bassano, c.&#160;1590, at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Among the relevant 16th-century panel paintings is <em>Lady Playing a Clavichord <\/em>by the Master of the Female Half-Lengths. The picture, probably painted in Antwerp around 1530 and now in the National Museum in Poznan, shows a small instrument, which, like many others of its time, has little decoration. The black painted tendril ornamentation with grotesque heads and clover leaves is only found on the sides of the case (Fig.&#160;1). The instrument is depicted in a simple but elegant atmosphere that suggests affluence. The richly decorated goblet protrudes slightly over the edge of the table, symbolizing a sense of impending danger. An underlay of green velvet in connection with musical instruments seems to have been in line with the taste of the 16th century and even later, as numerous panel paintings prove.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn8\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref8\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>8<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> When compared with the painting <em>Young Woman Playing a Clavichord<\/em> (c.&#160;1530) from the workshop of Jan van Hemessen,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn9\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref9\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>9<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the attributes such as the red dress, hairband, necklace, lidded cup, and green velvet prove to be almost identical, However, in the depiction of the instrument, van Hemessen placed more emphasis on the correct reproduction of the mechanics and the hand position. Apart from a green strip, the decoration of the instrument is only vaguely suggested. This comparison shows that paintings are only of limited use as a source for decoration, as they are always subordinate to the message of the image and\/or the painter.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1_1.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance-style oil painting of a young woman in a red velvet gown with black and white sleeves, seated indoors by a latticed window. She plays a small wooden clavichord with delicate focus. Her pale complexion and neatly arranged hair are framed by a white coif and red headband. A detailed ornate goblet stands beside her on a green-draped table. The background is dimly lit, emphasizing the soft light illuminating her face and dress.\" width=\"564\" height=\"812\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8276\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1_1.jpg 564w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1_1-208x300.jpg 208w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1_1-104x150.jpg 104w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 564px) 100vw, 564px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 1:<\/b> Master of the Female Half-Lengths, <em>Lady Playing a Clavichord<\/em>, 1530, oil\/wood, 44 x 31&#160;cm, National Museum in Poznan, FR 442 \/ Mo 115; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Master_of_Female_Half_Lengths_Lady.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Master_of_Fem ale_Half_Lengths_Lady.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;August 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, certain trends can be discerned in some paintings, such as <em>Girl at the Virginal<\/em> by Catharina van Hemessen from 1548, now at the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum in Cologne (Fig.&#160;2). The daughter of the aforementioned Jan van Hemessen is depicted here as a musician without any further attributes. Only her face and hands emerge from the dark background, together with the light wood of the soundboard. This features a small rose and a barely discernible triangular motif. On the inside of the framed side panel is a Latin motto of religious content. It is particularly interesting that the dolphin pattern typical of Ruckers instruments is inscribed on the wooden case in the manner of a frieze and not \u2013 as would become typical later on \u2013 printed on paper.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn10\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref10\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>10<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2_2.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance portrait painting of a young woman playing a virginal. She wears a dark velvet dress with a high collar and a white headdress, seated against a dark background. Her delicate hands rest on the ornate instrument decorated with floral motifs. The inscription in the top right corner reads \u201cCaterina de Hemessen pingebat 1548\u201d and \u201cAetatis suae 22,\u201d indicating the artist\u2019s name, the date, and her age. This classical oil painting exemplifies 16th-century Flemish portraiture, with fine detail, realism, and rich color tones.\" width=\"725\" height=\"921\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8277\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2_2.jpg 725w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2_2-236x300.jpg 236w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2_2-118x150.jpg 118w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 725px) 100vw, 725px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 2:<\/b> Catharina van Hemessen, <em>Girl at the Virginal, <\/em>1548, oil\/wood, 30.5 x 24.3&#160;cm, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne, WRM 0654; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Young_woman_playing_a_virginal_by_Catharina_van_Hemessen?uselang=de\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Young_woman_playing_a_virginal_by_Catharina_van_Hemessen?uselang=de<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>More elaborate is the decoration of the virginal in the family portrait at the Stadsmuseum Lier by Frans Floris, 1561, which likely shows the Berchem family (Fig.&#160;3). The presumptive man of the house plays the lute, his wife the virginal. The virginal\u2019s case bears symbols of love, in particular a pair of doves. The soundboard, featuring a rose and painted with scattered flowers, is a representative example of the Flemish decorative practice that arose during the mid-16th century.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance family portrait showing a large group gathered around a table covered with fruit and bread. The central male figure plays a lute while a woman beside him performs on a virginal. The family members, dressed in rich 16th-century attire with lace collars and dark garments, include men, women, and children, all wearing white coifs or bonnets. A small dog stands at the right, gazing upward. The Latin inscription above and below the painting praises marital and familial concord.\" width=\"1749\" height=\"1085\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8324\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1.jpg 1749w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1-300x186.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1-1024x635.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1-150x93.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1-768x476.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1-1536x953.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-3_1-850x527.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1749px) 100vw, 1749px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 3<\/b> Frans Floris, <em>Portrait of the Family van Berchem<\/em>, 1561, oil\/wood, 130 x 227&#160;cm, Stadsmuseum Lier, 0052; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Frans_Floris_002.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Frans_Floris_002.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The well-known painting <em>Apollo and the Muses, <\/em>c.&#160;1570, by Marten de Vos (Fig.&#160;4) shows a virginal decorated on the inside of its lid with a battle painting that features a multitude of figures. One of the Muses plays on this instrument in the company of her fellow Muses and Apollo. The contrast between the battle scene and this concert of the Muses is further heightened by the motto \u2018Musae loco belli\u2019 (\u2018Muses in place of war\u2019), which is written on the instrument\u2019s case.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn11\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref11\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>11<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Later on, this painting even came to serve as a model for the lid painting on a Ruckers instrument of 1619.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn12\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref12\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>12<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-style painting depicting nine women \u2013 the muses \u2013 playing musical instruments, including a lute, harp, and virginal. They group around a a young man, i.\u2009e. Apollo, playing the lyre. The figures are dressed in richly colored gowns and adorned with floral crowns, set in an outdoor scene with trees and sky in the background.\" width=\"1417\" height=\"939\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8278\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4.jpg 1417w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4-1024x679.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4-150x99.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4-768x509.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-4-850x563.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1417px) 100vw, 1417px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 4<\/b>: Marten de Vos, <em>Apollo and the Muses,<\/em> c.1570 (?), oil\/wood, 44.5 x 63.5&#160;cm, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, 3882; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/de.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datei:Apollo_and_the_Muses_by_Marten_de_Vos_(1570).jpg\">https:\/\/de.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datei:Apollo_and_the_Muses_by_Marten_de_Vos_(1570).jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>There were multiple painters, both female and male, who showed themselves playing keyboard instruments in their self-portraits. Among these paintings, the one created by Lavinia Fontana in 1577 (Fig.&#160;5) stands out. Her instrument exhibits the typical Italian decorative concept of this era with a rose, wood of a natural appearance with thin black lines that were probably inlays, and ivory buttons on the jackrail and the edges of the case. Here Lavinia presents herself as a self-assured figure. The instrument, the servant, and the other details are accessories that underscore her elegant presence. Although her hands are on the keyboard, their carefully constructed line of sight points to the easel in front of the window in the background. Through the skillful execution of the composition and all the details, she also presents herself as a painter.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-5_1.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-era painting of a young woman playing a clavichord, while seated in a well-lit room. She wears an ornate dress with a lace collar and a beaded necklace. Another woman stands behind her, holding an open book of sheet music. The background shows a window and part of an easel, creating a refined and cultured domestic setting.\" width=\"800\" height=\"898\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8279\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-5_1.jpg 800w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-5_1-267x300.jpg 267w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-5_1-134x150.jpg 134w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-5_1-768x862.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 5:<\/b> Lavinia Fontana, <em>Self-Portrait at the Clavichord with a Servant<\/em>, 1577, oil\/canvas, 27 x 23.8&#160;cm, Accademia Nazionale di San Luca, Rome, 743; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lavinia_Fontana_-_Self-Portrait_at_the_Spinet_-_WGA07985.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lavinia_Fontana_-_Self-Portrait_at_the_Spinet_-_WGA07985.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>These paintings allow only limited conclusions to be drawn concerning the quantity and appearance of the instruments that actually existed in the 16th century, but they do at least show some types of decoration that were already in use by then. The range extends from simple undecorated instruments to elaborate designs with roses on (un)painted soundboards, inlays and applications, the well-known dolphin pattern, phytomorphic ornaments, mottos (i.e. aphorisms), and even lid paintings.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside panel paintings, there also exist further visual sources that can provide clues as to decorative practice during the 16th century such as ecclesiastical and aristocratic furnishings as well as design and architectural drawings. For example, in Federico Zucchero\u2019s drawing <em>Man at the Clave\u00e7in <\/em>(Fig.&#160;6), the instrument is depicted as completely undecorated. According to a note written in the painter\u2019s own hand, the man at the instrument is the Florentine author and musician Antonio Francesco Doni (1513\u201374).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn13\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref13\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>13<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-6.jpg\" alt=\"A sepia-toned sketch depicting two men in Renaissance-style clothing. One man is seated at a harpsichord, playing, while the other stands nearby, watching attentively with one hand resting on his hip. The background suggests an interior setting with minimal detail. The drawing is rendered in soft lines and shading, giving a gentle, informal feel.\" width=\"768\" height=\"512\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8280\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-6.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-6-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-6-150x100.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 6:<\/b> Federico Zucchero, <em>Man at the Clave\u00e7in<\/em>, 1564, pencil, 15.4 x 22&#160;cm, Louvre, Paris, 4576; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/5\/101833-Un-homme-debout-ecoutant-un-musicien-jouant-du-clavecin-max\">http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/5\/101833-Un-homme-debout-ecoutant-un-musicien-jouant-du-clavecin-max<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 27&#160;February 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Keyboard instruments, being somewhat \u2018awkward\u2019 in shape, appear less often than other instruments in music-themed architectural ornaments; however, wood inlays, wall friezes, wall decorations, and the like occasionally do show rather simply decorated examples. One might point here to an intarsia in the Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican, 1510, or a frieze at the Casa Giorgione in Castelfranco from 1504 (Fig.&#160;7).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7.jpg\" alt=\"A wall painting depicting a stringed keyboard instrument, shown in stylized geometric and earthy tones of brown and beige. The instrument has multiple strings stretched across a rectangular wooden frame, with decorative patterns, circular motifs, and flowing ribbon-like shapes around it.\" width=\"2048\" height=\"1536\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8281\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-7-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2048px) 100vw, 2048px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 7:<\/b> Wall frieze at the Casa Giorgione, 1504, Castelfranco Veneto (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The few illustrations in historical musical treatises, such as Sebastian Virdung\u2019s <em>Musica getutscht und au\u00dfgezogen, <\/em>1511, are designed to capture the function of the instruments and hence feature hardly any decoration (Fig.&#160;8).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-8.jpg\" alt=\"Two illustrations of early keyboard instruments. The left image shows a clavichord with its lid open, revealing strings running parallel to the keyboard. The right image depicts a virginal with a longer, angled shape and strings running diagonally across the body. Both instruments have wooden cases and open lids displaying their internal string arrangements.\" width=\"897\" height=\"249\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8282\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-8.jpg 897w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-8-300x83.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-8-150x42.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-8-768x213.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-8-850x236.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 897px) 100vw, 897px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 8:<\/b> Sebastian Virdung, <em>Musica getutscht und ausgezogen<\/em>, [Basel] [Michael Furter] [1511] (vdm: 3); &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/SBB0001444100000000\">http:\/\/resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/SBB0001444100000000<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 27&#160;February 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>One of the few surviving 16th-century design drawings for an instrument decoration is a drawing created by an anonymous artist between 1560 and 1570 (Fig.&#160;9). It presents an elaborate concept for a lid decoration, with figures making music and dancing in a distinguished interior. It is not known whether this concept was ever realised, but its strong relationship with music does point to one of the main substantive themes of instrument decoration.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9.jpg\" alt=\"A sepia-toned sketch depicting a dance scene inside a large hall. Groups of elegantly dressed men and women are dancing, conversing, and playing music. Musicians are seated on the right playing string instruments, while dancers move across the center of the room. On the left, seated figures watch the dancers, and in the foreground, a servant appears to offer a tray. The architectural interior features tall windows and chandeliers. The perspective gives a cutaway view of the space due to the function of a lid decoration.\" width=\"1920\" height=\"1102\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8284\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-300x172.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-1024x588.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-150x86.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-768x441.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-1536x882.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-850x488.jpg 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-9-384x220.jpg 384w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 9:<\/b> Anon., <em>People Dancing and Making Music, <\/em>c.&#160;1560\u201370, pen, brown ink and wash\/paper, 17.2 x 29.5&#160;cm, National Galleries of Scotland, D665; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nationalgalleries.org\/art-and-artists\/14199\/study-lid-harpsichord-people-dancing-and-making-musicc\">https:\/\/www.nationalgalleries.org\/art-and-artists\/14199\/study-lid-harpsichord-people-dancing-and-making-musicc<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Even if pictorial sources do provide central clues as to decorative practice, it must be borne in mind when assessing them that they likely show only a tiny share of the instruments that existed in the 16th century and that, in general, questions concerning how accurately these images corresponded to reality do remain worthy of discussion.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"2\">Written Sources<\/h4>\n<p>Much like pictorial sources, written sources on decoration from the 16th century are scarce and scattered. Archival records, especially contemporaneous inventories, occasionally provide small bits of information regarding certain prominent instruments\u2019 visual qualities. For example, the following note can be found in a 1566 inventory of Fugger instruments:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">Mer ain sch\u00f6n\u00df langes Instrument, von sch\u00f6nem schwarz Ebano\/mit erhepten helffenbeinen Prustbildtlen. Inwendig unnd\/k\u00fcnstlich gemaltem Fueter, auch 3 Registern helffenbein\/Clavier und vergulten Negelen. Ainer gewaltigen Resonantz.\/Ist zu Venedig gemacht p. Franc. Ungaro.<\/span><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn14\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref14\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>14<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018Further, a beautiful long instrument, made of beautiful black ebony, with raised ivory portraits. Elaborately painted interior decoration, a further three stops, an ivory keyboard, and gilded nails. Tremendous resonance. Made in Venice by Franc. Ungaro.\u2019)<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn15\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref15\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>15<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Those who compiled inventories usually considered the structural qualities of the instruments more important than their appearance. It is thus that, although the 1590 inventory of the Graz court treasury indicates that four keyboard instruments were present, we learn very little about their external appearance:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">Erstlichen ein instrument mit m\u00f6ssingen saiten, etlichen registern [\u2026<\/span><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">]; ist mit helfenpain eingelegt und mit silberen vergulten auch alebasterbildern gezieret. \/ Mer ein instrument mit m\u00f6ssingen saiten und verborgnen pfeifen [\u2026]. \/ Mer ein ander lang instrument mit m\u00f6ssing und st\u00e4hlen saiten, darauf man lauth und still schlagen khan; irer furstlich durchlaucht etc. vom herzogen zu Fer\u00e4ra \u00fcberschickht worden [\u2026]. \/ Ain clavicimole mit dre\u00ff Registern; soll zu hof in der jungen f\u00fcrstin Erzherzogin Maria zimmer sein.<\/span><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn16\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref16\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>16<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018First, an instrument with brass strings, several stops [\u2026]. It is inlaid with ivory and decorated with silver, gilded, and alabaster pictures. Second, an instrument with brass strings and hidden pipes [\u2026]. Further, another long instrument with brass and steel strings on which one can play loudly and softly; sent to Her Serene Highness etc. by the Duke of Ferrara [\u2026]. A clavicimole with three stops; it is said to be at the court in the chamber of the young Princess Archduchess Maria.\u2019)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Of similar character are the brief descriptions in other inventories such as that of the musical instruments at the Royal Palace of Madrid, which lists eleven keyboard instruments with their estimated values and brief notes on their provenance and condition. Mention is made, for example, of a \u2018clavicordio of white wood, two yards of length; square: covered with black leather, and in the lid a landscape painting. \u2013 Broken\u2019 and a \u2018large clavicordio and clavi\u00f3rganos all together with much variation of music, which is played with hands and feet. It was presented to his Majesty by Senor Don Juan of Austria.\u2019<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn17\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref17\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>17<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>At any rate, inventories do indicate the presence of individual decorative elements. An analysis and comparison of the various inventories would be an eminently rewarding research project, seeing as such sources tell one more than most music-theoretical treatises of the time \u2013 which, in fact, hardly mention decoration at&#160;all. Perhaps Johann Mattheson\u2019s later opinion already had currency in the 16th century: \u2018Die sch\u00f6nste Orgel, ohne Organisten, dient nur zum hinderlichen Zierrath\u2019 (\u2018The most beautiful organ, without an organist, serves only as a cumbersome decoration\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn18\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref18\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>18<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> From the perspective of the visual arts, however, the prevailing values were quite &#173;naturally different. In his <em>Trattato dell\u2019arte della pittura, scultura et architettura, <\/em>published in 1584, the painter andart theorist Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo made no move to question whether musical instruments should be decorated. He did, however, insist that instruments not be used as image carriers per se, with the image instead having to serve the musical instrument. Such images, he wrote, should make for \u2018accrescimento di dolcezza alla vista, convenienti alla musica\u2019, i.e., enhanced sweetness to the eye such as suits the music.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn19\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref19\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>19<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As far as pictorial themes were concerned, he only allowed for those with a direct connection to music \u2013 \u2018non contengano altro che soggetto di musica\u2019 (\u2018contain nothing but the subject of music\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn20\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref20\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>20<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Noting that it was common &#173;practice to depict a wide variety of subjects such as the conversion of Saul, miracles, or battles without any musical references or relevance, Lomazzo asserted that this was to be rejected. Since his recommendations were primarily directed at church organs, he naturally suggested \u2013 probably in accordance with the decrees of the Tridentine Council<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn21\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref21\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>21<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> \u2013 themes from the Bible and other Christian writings such as Saint Cecilia, David singing the Psalms, choirs of angels, and the like. And if a non-musical subject was chosen, he wrote, music should at least be included in the staffage \u2013 an example being angels playing music at the birth of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Lomazzo, these rules also applied to instruments outside of churches, by which he probably meant mainly stringed keyboard instruments. For these, however, also he found other music-related themes to be suitable, especially those from Greco-Roman mythology such as Orpheus, Apollo and the Muses, Amphion, Arion, etc. Inspirations from poetry and history as well as original inventions of the artist were also appropriate. Lomazzo\u2019s own suggestion for an \u2018original invention\u2019 adheres to the stipulation of musical relevance and depicts twenty-eight \u2018uomini eccellenti\u2019 including various Flemish and Italian singers, musicians, composers, and visual artists including Adriano Willaert and Leonardo da Vinci.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn22\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref22\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>22<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> These portraits were meant to represent the \u2018nove cori della musica \u00e0 tre \u00e0 tre, co\u2019suoi instromenti\u2019, being something like a secular version of the nine choirs of angels.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn23\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref23\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>23<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Whether this densely packed crowd of artists shown together with an organ, lutes, lyres, viols, harps, citterns, cornetts, and trombones ever actually came to populate an instrument lid is not known.<\/p>\n<p>Although Lomazzo was the only author to explicitely refer to the ornamentation of musical instruments, his recommendations for pictorial themes were by no means his own idiosyncratic ideas but much rather a theoretical distillation of contemporary practice that was also precisely in keeping with general art theory as it pertained to autonomous pictorial works during the Counter-Reformation \u2013 with similar recommendations having, for example, been formulated in a 1564 treatise by Giovanni Andrea Gilio da Fabriano, who likewise allowed for \u2018poetic\u2019, \u2018historical\u2019, and \u2018mixed\u2019 themes in addition to religious content.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn24\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref24\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>24<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Lomazzo\u2019s principles also correspond with the tradition of the so-called <em>decorum<\/em>. Artists and theorists discussed and used the term <em>decorum<\/em> not just during the 1500s but indeed from around 1400 to 1800 to denote what was seemly, appropriate, and proper in art. Its meaning depended on the context and period. In the art of the 16th century, part of what it entailed was that the artist always takes into account the location and purpose for which an artwork was being created \u2013 whether it was for a church or a palace, for state or private premises. Lomazzo\u2019s recommendations of suitable pictorial themes for musical instruments within and outside of sacred spaces arose from precisely that complex of ideas which constituted the <em>decorum<\/em> of his day.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn25\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref25\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>25<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"3\">Preserved Instruments and Instrument Lids as Sources with Limited Informative Value<\/h4>\n<p>The most important source concerning the decorative concepts of the 16th century is, of course, that of the preserved instruments themselves. However, it should be emphasised at the outset that even for instruments whose provenance is beyond doubt, the development of their decoration down through the years cannot always be traced. Even the original decorations on an instrument were the result of collaboration between various craftsmen and artists. Naturally, the carved frame and roses required different craftsmen than those responsible for the lid paintings. This resulted in a certain stylistic diversity from the outset, the origins of which are generally difficult to identify. An instrument\u2019s original decoration created in this way may have been altered or replaced altogether in subsequent periods due either to structural alterations during <em>ravalements<\/em> or restorations or to changes in taste. And let us also not disregard the matter of forgeries, in which context Franciolini\u2019s name looms large.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn26\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref26\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>26<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>As an example of the chequered history of some instruments, consider one that was originally made as a virginal (1585 or 1587), was converted into a tangent piano in 1717, and possibly passed through Franciolini\u2019s hands during the late 19th century. Franciolini may well have added the name of the supposed instrument maker, \u2018Franciscus Bonafinis\u2019, himself (Fig.&#160;10).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn27\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref27\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>27<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> An analysis of 16th-century decorations on the basis of such relics would hardly be meaningful without painstaking, detailed investigation.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-10.jpg\" alt=\"Black and white image of a virginal. It has a trapezoidal wooden body with a decorative rosette in the center and a single manual keyboard at the bottom. The strings are stretched diagonally across the soundboard, with tuning pegs on the right side.\" width=\"912\" height=\"444\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8226\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-10.jpg 912w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-10-300x146.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-10-150x73.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-10-768x374.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-10-850x414.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 912px) 100vw, 912px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 10:<\/b> Franciscus Bonafinis (?), <em>Virginal<\/em>, converted into a tangent piano, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 89.4.2765; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/505225\">http:\/\/metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/505225<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 27&#160;February 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Just like countless pictorial and written sources, instruments from the 16th century have also been lost to wars, Reformation-era iconoclasm, uprisings, and neglect. Attractive decoration may, however, have saved certain instruments from total loss. Some lids thus survived their instruments, as demonstrated by a number of instrument-less lids now on display in art galleries. One cannot assume that the artistic quality of their decoration allows conclusions to be drawn about the majority of the instruments that originally existed. They were also often reworked in such a way that their original purpose was no longer recognizable. Sometimes this was done by simply cutting them down, as in the case of a lid, probably painted by Girolamo Romanino around 1540, which is now stored \u2013 trimmed \u2013 like a panel painting atLondon\u2019s National Gallery under the title <em>Pegasus and the Muses <\/em>(Fig.&#160;11). It shows the winged horse Pegasus stamping its hoof on Mount Helicon and giving rise to the spring known as the Hippocrene (Horse\u2019s Fountain), a source of artistic inspiration. In the foreground, the muses \u2013 accompanied by three gentlemen \u2013 play instruments and sing. On the right in the background, the Pieridae are transforming into magpies, as in Ovid\u2019s <em>Metamorphoses<\/em>, IV&#160;662\u201378. The clothing and the architecture in the background place this painting in Lombardy during the 1540s and resemble Romanino\u2019s murals in the Palazzo Salvadego in Brescia from 1543. On the back of the panel, remnants of a coat of arms are still visible, as was common on the front lids of harpsichords or virginals. Traces of hinges etc. are missing, as the panel has been trimmed at the top and sides.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn28\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref28\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>28<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11.jpg\" alt=\"A group of men and women in Renaissance clothing are gathered outdoors, observing a winged horse standing on a hill, with trees and buildings in the background.\" width=\"1091\" height=\"387\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8227\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11.jpg 1091w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11-300x106.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11-1024x363.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11-150x53.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11-768x272.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-11-850x302.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1091px) 100vw, 1091px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 11:<\/b> Girolamo Romanino, <em>Pegasus and the Muses<\/em>, 1540, oil\/wood, 38 x 115.4&#160;cm, National Gallery, London, NG3093; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/possibly-by-girolamo-romanino-pegasus-and-the-muses\">https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/possibly-by-girolamo-romanino-pegasus-and-the-muses<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The lid painting <em>Silenus Gathering Grapes <\/em>fromthe hand of Annibale (and presumably Agostino)<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn29\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref29\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>29<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Carracci (Figs.&#160;12\u201314) likewise survived its instrument and was already viewed as a work of art in 1664, as evidenced by its entry in a historical catalogue of works worth seeing in Rome:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">Signori Lancellotti. Palazzo alli Coronari. Cortile fregiato di statue, e bassirilievi antichi; nel portico di sopra la statua di Diana Efesia, con pitture nelle camere, fra le quali un Cambalo [sic] dipinto a guazzo con Sileno portato a braccia da due fauni di mani di Annibale Carracci.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn30\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref30\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>30<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018Mr. and Mrs. Lancellotti. Coronari Palace. Courtyard adorned with statues and ancient bas-reliefs; atop the portico a statue of Diana Ephesia; paintings in the rooms, including a harpsichord with Silenus carried by two fauns painted in gouache by Annibale Carracci.\u2019)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The lid was even subsequently reworked into a panel painting: an old photograph shows how it had been cut up and mounted to form a rectangle. This modification was reversed in the 20th century, but a narrow intermediate piece between the two young satyrs is now missing as can be seen from the format and a drawing by Carracci (Figs.&#160;14 and 43). Due to these changes, the value of this source is naturally diminished. Like the painting attributed to Lavinia Fontana, <em>Apollo and the Muses<\/em> (1589\u20131600, unknown private collection), or the painting by Sebastiano Ricci <em>Venus Surrounded by Nymphes<\/em> (1716\u201320, Louvre, M.I.866), several other harpsichord lids that have been \u2018completed\u2019 into rectangles are likely to be uncovered.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-12.jpg\" alt=\"A mythological scene depicting three male figures and a child in a vineyard. Two muscular men carry a plump, older man crowned with grape leaves as he reaches for a bunch of grapes hanging from a vine. In the background, a small child climbs another vine. The setting is outdoors with green foliage and grapevines filling the composition.\" width=\"800\" height=\"622\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8228\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-12.jpg 800w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-12-300x233.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-12-150x117.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-12-768x597.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/> <\/p>\n<div>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 12:<\/b> Annibale (and Agostino?) Carracci, <em>Silenus Gathering Grapes<\/em>, part 1, 1597\u20131600, oil\/wood, 54.5 x 88.5&#160;cm, National Gallery London, NG93.1; &lt;https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/annibale-carracci-silenus-gathering-grapes &#8211; painting-group-info&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-13.jpg\" alt=\"A mythological scene painting depicting a chubby, nude child or putto climbing a vine-covered tree trunk. The figure holds a bunch of red grapes in one hand and grips the vine with the other. The background shows a muted green pattern of grape leaves and clusters, creating a lush, decorative atmosphere.\" width=\"443\" height=\"800\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8229\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-13.jpg 443w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-13-166x300.jpg 166w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-13-83x150.jpg 83w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 443px) 100vw, 443px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 13:<\/b> Annibale (and Agostino?) Carracci, <em>Silenus Gathering Grapes<\/em>, part 2, 1597\u20131600, oil\/wood, 54.5 x 88.5&#160;cm, National Gallery London, NG93.2; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/annibale-carracci-young-satyr-gathering-grapes\">https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/annibale-carracci-young-satyr-gathering-grapes<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14.png\" alt=\"A mythological scene showing several nude male figures and putti in a woodland setting. At the center, two muscular young men carry a plump, older, bearded man adorned with a garland of leaves; he reaches up toward hanging grapevines. On either side, two smaller child-like figures climb trees and reach for grapes. The background features softly painted trees and a distant landscape, rendered in monochrome tones.\" width=\"2324\" height=\"1254\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8286\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14.png 2324w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-300x162.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-1024x553.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-150x81.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-768x414.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-1536x829.png 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-2048x1105.png 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-14-850x459.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2324px) 100vw, 2324px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 14:<\/b> Annibale (and Agostino?) Carracci, <em>Silenus Gathering Grapes<\/em>, 1597\u20131600, photograph of its reworked state; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/catalogo.fondazionezeri.unibo.it\/scheda\/fotografia\/106921\/National%20Gallery%252C%20London%25C2%25A0%25E2%2580%2594%25C2%25A0Carracci%20Annibale%20-%20sec.%20XVI%20XVII%20-%20Sileno%20coglie%20grappoli%20d%2527uva\">http:\/\/catalogo.fondazionezeri.unibo.it\/scheda\/fotografia\/106921\/National%20Gallery%252C%20London%25C2%25A0%25E2%2580%2594%25C2%25A0Carracci%20Annibale%20-%20sec.%20XVI%20XVII%20-%20Sileno%20coglie%20grappoli%20d%2527uva<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Rectangular lids did not necessarily have to be trimmed to be considered panel paintings, but their original purpose was concealed by other measures. Consider, for instance, the work <em>Venetian Dancers with Commedia dell Arte Troupe<\/em> (Fig.&#160;15), found as a painting at the Suermondt-Ludwig-Museum in Aachen. The painting depicts the \u2018Parentado\u2019, a dance festival that traditionally took place in Venice in the late 16th century a few days before a wedding. The scene, featuring gondolas and a Commedia dell\u2019Arte troupe, evokes a Venetian atmosphere, but is based on a copperplate engraving by Hendrik Goltzius from 1584, once again highlighting supraregional artistic exchange. A comprehensive restoration project was what first revealed this panel\u2019s original function as a harpsichord\u2019s lid flap. A filled-in hole for the cord, the overpainted ornaments found on the back (much like in the Ruckers harpsichord of 1612, now in Paris at the Mus\u00e9e de la Musique), the poplar panel, traces of the originally glued-on frame and hinges, and last but not least its dimensions are clear indicators. This lid survived due to the high quality of its painting, which was originally thought to be the work of Hieronymus Franken&#160;I but is now attributed to his nephew, Hieronymus Franken&#160;II.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn31\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref31\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>31<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-15.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-era ballroom scene depicting elegantly dressed men and women engaging in conversation, dancing, and music. The figures wear richly colored gowns and elaborate costumes, with lutes and other instruments being played. The setting features tall windows overlooking a cityscape and ornate interior decorations, evoking an atmosphere of aristocratic festivity and refinement.\" width=\"800\" height=\"504\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8230\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-15.jpg 800w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-15-300x189.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-15-150x95.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-15-768x484.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 15:<\/b> Hieronymus Francken&#160;II (?), <em>Venetian Dancers with Commedia dell Arte Troupe,<\/em> c.&#160;1600, oil\/wood, 41.2 x 64.7&#160;cm, Suermondt-Ludwig-Museum Aachen, GK 159; &lt;https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hieronymus_Francken_I_-_Carnival_in_Venice.jpg#file&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The painting <em>The Contest between Apollo and Pan <\/em>by Bartholom\u00e4us Spranger (Fig.&#160;16) is a further example. The museum catalogue and some recent literature<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn32\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref32\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>32<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> describe it as a panel painting, although the description in the museum and an exhibition catalogue<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn33\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref33\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>33<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> indicate its initial purpose as an instrument lid. The theme almost exceeds the given format, which is determined by its original use, due to its mannerist, figurative, and dynamic representation. Also the support (wood), the subject, and the traces of nail holes \u2013 presumably from the hinge \u2013 clearly indicate the painting\u2019s instrumental origin.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn34\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref34\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>34<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, like other similar objects,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn35\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref35\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>35<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> this high-quality lid is a source of limited informative value, as too many aspects remain unclear \u2013 the client, builder, decorative concept of the entire instrument, etc.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16.jpg\" alt=\"A mythological painting depicting a lively outdoor scene of gods, nymphs, and satyrs gathered in a lush forest clearing. The composition features nude and semi-nude figures reclining and interacting amid trees, foliage, and distant mountains under a bright sky. Central figures sit in relaxed poses, surrounded by others playing musical instruments, pouring wine, and engaging in conversation. Warm, earthy tones dominate the landscape, emphasizing the sensuality and harmony of the classical myth theme.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"354\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8231\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16-300x89.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16-1024x302.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16-150x44.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16-768x227.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-16-850x251.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 16:<\/b> Bartholom\u00e4us Spranger, <em>Contest between Apollo and Pan,<\/em> c.&#160;1587, oil\/wood, 39.8 x 132.5&#160;cm, Bayerische Staatsgem\u00e4ldesammlungen (on permanent loan to the Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg, Gm 1100); &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sammlung.pinakothek.de\/en\/artwork\/jpxeyknxJ7\">https:\/\/www.sammlung.pinakothek.de\/en\/artwork\/jpxeyknxJ7<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"4\">Representation and Projection<\/h4>\n<p>Why were instruments decorated? As an \u2018upmarket piece of furniture\u2019, a keyboard instrument was particularly well suited as a display object and projection surface. The especially pronounced desire for ornamentation and the need for <em>representation<\/em> documented in the 16th century were certainly motives for decoration. (Here, I use representation [<em>Repr\u00e4sentation<\/em>] in the specific sense of generating an external effect that befits and projects an elevated socio-economic status.) An ornate instrument most assuredly did not serve only music-making but was also part of the \u2018lifestyle\u2019 of some members of the upper class \u2013 and, as such, became a prestigious collector\u2019s item. It was accordingly that, in 1554, Sabba da Castiglione\u2019s instructional text for his nephew expressly recommended that he decorate his home with musical instruments \u2018come organi, claocimbali [sic], monocordi, salteri, arpe, dolcimeli\u2019 (\u2018such as organs, harpsichords, clavichords, salterios, harps, <em>dolcimeli<\/em>\u2019) as well as plucked, stringed, and wind instruments, \u2018perche questi tali instrumenti dilettano molto alle orecchie, et ricreano molto gli animi [\u2026] ancora piacciono assai all\u2019occhio, quando sono diligentemente et per mano di eccellenti et ingegniosi maestri lavorati\u2019 (\u2018for these instruments greatly delight the ears and restore the soul [\u2026] as well as greatly please the eye if they have been diligently crafted by the hands of excellent and ingenious masters\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn36\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref36\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>36<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> This text goes on to mention the instrument makers Bastiano da Verona<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn37\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref37\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>37<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> as well as Lorenzo da Pavia Gusnaschi, a friend of Leonardo da Vinci and highly respected at that time, who built a large harpsichord for Pope Leo&#160;X in 1514.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn38\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref38\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>38<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>It can be assumed that unadorned and plainly painted instruments outnumbered the decorated ones. But a client could, depending on his financial resources, commission decorations that would draw attention to his wealth or deep humanistic knowledge, his modern spirit, or his lifestyle, thus enhancing his image \u2013 his <em>prestige<\/em>. Decorating instruments was therefore consistent with the contemporary aristocratic and wealthy bourgeois practice of collecting rare objects and curiosities and displaying them in lavishly decorated display furniture (<em>Kabinettschr\u00e4nke<\/em>) or in \u2018cabinets of curiosities\u2019 (<em>Kunstkammern<\/em> or <em>Wunderkammern<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>As Erik Forssman has observed, that era\u2019s art of decoration was not an end in itself and cannot be understood in purely material terms; it much rather expressed the attitude of the client and the artisan as well as the dignity of the object.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn39\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref39\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>39<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Musical instruments were hence decorated not merely for the purpose of material appreciation and \u2018prettification\u2019 but also in order to lend them dignity and \u2018elevate\u2019 them through exquisite features. This is how it had always been: the Bible describes how King Solomon sent for precious \u2018Almug wood\u2019<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn40\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref40\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>40<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> from the legendary land of Ophir for the purpose of making musical instruments.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn41\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref41\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>41<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Ovid, in turn, tells us in his <em>Metamorphoses <\/em>that the lyre of Apollo was \u2018richly inlaid with jewels and Indian ivory\u2019.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn42\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref42\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>42<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> One could easily cite more such quotations. Many, like the one from Sabba da Castiglione above, emphasize the connection between the quality of the instrument and the pleasure it gives to the ears as well as to the eyes and the soul. Marin Mersenne\u2019s assertion that \u2018the eyes should participate in the pleasure of the ears\u2019 is likewise well known.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn43\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref43\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>43<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The Italian instruments that survive from this period fulfil this requirement mainly via the quality and beauty of their materials as well as the quantity, refinement, and originality of their ornamental decoration. An example of this is the octave virginal commissioned by Eleonora della Rovere, Duchess of Urbino, and built in Venice in 1540, which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Fig.&#160;17). The front panel of the instrument advises: \u2018Riccho son d\u2019oro et riccho son di suono non mi sonar si tu non ha del buono\u2019 (\u2018I\u2019m rich in gold and rich in tone; if you lack virtue, leave me alone\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn44\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref44\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>44<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Taken together, the opulence of the decoration and the inscription\u2019s demand for inner moral integrity satisfy the aims of representation and projection, appearance and prestige.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate virginal featuring intricately carved wooden panels and decorative inlays. The front panel displays alternating geometric and floral motifs with gold and dark wood accents, accompanied by an inscribed Italian phrase across the front. The white ivory keys and dark wooden sharps are framed by detailed craftsmanship, with floral marquetry on the instrument\u2019s sides. The design exemplifies Venetian artistry and luxury from the 16th century.\" width=\"1654\" height=\"618\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8232\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17.jpg 1654w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17-300x112.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17-1024x383.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17-150x56.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17-768x287.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17-1536x574.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-17-850x318.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1654px) 100vw, 1654px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 17:<\/b> Anon., <em>Octavo Virginal<\/em>, 1540, Venice, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 53.6a,b; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503043\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503043<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>German instruments such as the South German Virginal (Augsburg?), 1595\u20131605, now at the Berlin Musical Instrument Museum (Fig.&#160;18),<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn45\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref45\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>45<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> likewise demonstrate this relationship between artisanship, material, and message. The ornamentation itself, with its exceptionally opulent inlays, becomes the subject of the image here: appearing at first glance like parts of a machine, the scrollwork portrays an ancient-seeming and positively surreal-looking city of ruins with pillars, sarcophagi, and other mysterious objects with tufts of stiff grass growing in between. This type of ornamentation was a mannerist development of scrollwork<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn46\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref46\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>46<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and can be traced back to engraving templates for Lorenz St\u00f6er\u2019s somewhat earlier publication <em>Geometrie et Perspectiva <\/em>(Augsburg, 1567) (Fig.&#160;19), hence documenting the relationship between furniture and instrument decoration. At the centre of the lid, an outsized chalice points to a possibly sacred intended use of this instrument, which was once part of a claviorganum. While this particular instrument links a sacred dimension with a humanist reception of antiquity that employs the most modern ornaments, other quite similarly decorated instruments attest more to the need for worldly representation \u2013 being built directly into the woodwork of precious cabinets of curiosities and thus quite overtly becoming elements of staged settings.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn47\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref47\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>47<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-18.jpg\" alt=\"A virginal with its lid open, showcasing an elegant wooden case decorated with intricate marquetry and carved floral patterns. The keyboard features white and dark keys set into a rectangular frame, while the soundboard displays delicate painted and inlaid details, including ornamental rosettes. The instrument\u2019s lid interior bears decorative wood inlay in symmetrical designs, highlighting early Baroque craftsmanship.\" width=\"500\" height=\"398\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8233\" style=\"display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-18.jpg 500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-18-300x239.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-18-150x119.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 18:<\/b> Anon., <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1595\u20131605, Augsburg?, Staatliches Institut f\u00fcr Musikforschung, Musikinstrumenten Museum Berlin, 2217; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/smb.museum-digital.de\/singleimage?resourcenr=582405\">https:\/\/smb.museum-digital.de\/singleimage?resourcenr=582405<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-19.jpg\" alt=\"A woodcut print depicting an architectural ruin scene filled with geometric shapes and classical elements. The composition includes crumbling arches, columns, and pyramidal forms arranged in a dense, surreal landscape. Bare trees rise among the fragmented masonry, and distant mountains and buildings appear in the background. The intricate linework and crosshatching create strong contrasts and depth, showcasing meticulous craftsmanship.\" width=\"531\" height=\"682\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8234\" style=\"display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-19.jpg 531w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-19-234x300.jpg 234w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-19-117x150.jpg 117w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 531px) 100vw, 531px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 19:<\/b> Lorenz St\u00f6er, <em>Geometria et Perspectiva<\/em> (Augsburg: Hans Rogel d.&#160;\u00c4., 1567) (VD16 S&#160;9209), fol.&#160;[7<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>]; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb11216116\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb11216116<\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Even instruments obviously designed as showpieces harbour deeper messages. The so-called Glass Virginal of c.&#160;1600, probably produced in the court workshop of either Ambras or Nuremberg and now at London\u2019s Victoria and Albert Museum,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn48\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref48\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>48<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> is such an instrument, being immediately recognisable as a representational object on account of its decoration with coloured glass, enamel, brass, and so on (Fig.&#160;20). Eighteen small panels of coloured glass depict scenes from Ovid\u2019s <em>Metamorphoses <\/em>in high relief, uniting the decoration beneath the idea of transformation and thus broadcasting the client\u2019s humanist education. The visual opulence of the elaborate, high-quality craftsmanship here is, moreover, an expression of the Age of Wonder (<em>Zeitalter des Staunens<\/em>), in which the medieval understanding of materials\u2019 appropriateness was overturned. Thomas Aquinas (1225\u201374) held that every artist should strive to have an artwork be constituted in a manner appropriate to its purpose \u2013 for example, to make a saw out of iron and not out of glass, \u2018though this be a more beautiful material, because this very beauty would be an obstacle to the end he has in view.\u2019<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn49\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref49\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>49<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> A soundboard covered with glass and spirals of brass wire was unlikely to have fulfilled this requirement. It was much rather designed to evoke the marvelling appreciation of artful imitation that Walther Hermann Ryff formulated in 1547 as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">Helffanbein und alle Edle gestein\/ werden sie nit durch die h\u00f6he der farben und k\u00fcnstlich Malen\/ h\u00f6her und werder geachtet gehalten und gezieret? Wird nit auch das Goldt so k\u00fcnstlich gemalet\/ vil h\u00f6her dan das rohe Goldt geachtet?<\/span><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn50\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref50\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>50<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018Ivory and all gemstones \u2013 are they not held in higher and greater esteem when rendered in quality paints by a skilful artist? Is gold not also, if skilfully painted, thought of more highly than natural gold?\u2019).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-20.jpg\" alt=\"Exquisitely decorated virginal with its lid open, revealing elaborate Renaissance-era craftsmanship. The instrument\u2019s interior is richly adorned with colorful geometric patterns, gilded accents, and miniature painted panels depicting architectural scenes and figures. The keyboard and surrounding frame feature intricate blue, gold, and white inlay designs, emphasizing luxury and artistic detail. The open lid displays a series of framed paintings bordered by ornate motifs, showcasing both musical and visual artistry.\" width=\"735\" height=\"492\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8235\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-20.jpg 735w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-20-300x201.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-20-150x100.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 735px) 100vw, 735px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 20:<\/b> Anon., <em>The Glass Virginal<\/em>,c.&#160;1600, Victoria and Albert Museum, 402-1872; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58892\/the-glass-virginal-virginal-unknown\/\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58892\/the-glass-virginal-virginal-unknown\/<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Many lid paintings also combine the two functions of representation and projection. For example, Ioannes Ruckers\u2019 double virginal, c.&#160;1600, now at the Museo Civico di Milano (Fig.&#160;21), portrays an idealised scene in which leisure time is spent hunting and boating in contemplative tranquillity.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn51\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref51\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>51<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The \u2018rich and beautiful\u2019 present themselves here in a generously proportioned landscape featuring a palace, elements of a formal garden, and \u2018natural nature\u2019 with a deer hunt on the opposite side of the little river. Typical markers of well-being such as the large four-legged wine cooler and the elegant sighthounds are complemented by a virginal richly decorated with an Orpheus scene. The instrument occupies a dominant position in a rose-covered pavilion and is being played by one of the ladies of the pictured group. This painting projects several things at the same time: a high standard of education with the reference to ancient mythology, a longing for \u2018Arcadia\u2019, a love of music, and self-staging as modern, elegant people of their era. In this undoubtedly imagined <em>veduta<\/em>, a perfect moment from that day\u2019s ideal world is projected onto the lid of a virginal \u2013 which, in turn, conveys that perfect moment to the listener-viewer.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21.png\" alt=\"A double-manual virginal with elaborately decorated casing and an open lid featuring a pastoral landscape painting. The artwork inside the lid depicts elegantly dressed figures in a garden setting, engaged in music and conversation beneath a domed arbor, with a distant cityscape and lush trees in the background. The harpsichord\u2019s exterior showcases intricate floral and scrollwork patterns in gold and black, emphasizing fine craftsmanship and Baroque elegance. Two tiers of ivory and ebony keys extend from the richly ornamented body, resting on wooden legs\" width=\"1498\" height=\"1138\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8287\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21.png 1498w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21-300x228.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21-1024x778.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21-150x114.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21-768x583.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-21-850x646.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1498px) 100vw, 1498px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 21:<\/b> Ioannes Ruckers, <em>Double Virginal<\/em>, c.&#160;1600, Comune di Milano \u2013 Museo degli Strumenti Musicali, 595; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/g.co\/arts\/Z5DcBk9cxxgFDrDCA\">https:\/\/g.co\/arts\/Z5DcBk9cxxgFDrDCA<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The dual levels of representation and projection on which these paintings operate are particularly clear in Hans Ruckers the Elder\u2019s double virginal of 1581, now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (Fig.&#160;22). The lid painting projects all the topoi of an ideal world.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn52\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref52\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>52<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> A combination of garden pavilions, an arbour of blooming roses, a Renaissance palace, and a bridge over a little river establishes the congenial setting. Thirty-six people pursue their pleasures, mainly in pairs: music-making, dancing, sport, boating, walking, and outdoor dining. Three uniformed fanfare-players indicate the company\u2019s high rank, as do the walled menagerie in the background, the Spanish fashion (with ruff, headdress, and rapier), and the depicted people\u2019s conspicuously graceful gestures. Legend has it that this instrument was sent to the New World as a gift from the Spanish King Philip&#160;II and his fourth wife, Anne of Austria.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn53\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref53\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>53<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, this version of events has occasionally been doubted by researchers. The gilded medallions with portraits of the royal couple on the nameboard are based on designs by Gianpaolo Poggini (1518\u201382), whom Philip&#160;II had commissioned to redesign the coinage of Flanders in 1557. Their relatively rough casting makes the story of a royal gift to a princess appear dubious.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn54\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref54\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>54<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Whatever the case may have been, these portraits are either vehicles of self-representation or acts of homage to the royal couple on the part of their commissioner or simply an attribute of an elite society of the sort pictured on the lid. In addition, the medallions highlight the idealization of couple relationships as depicted in the painting and correspond to the construction of these paired instruments, which \u2018not only represent the mother-child dualism but also the marital harmony of a man and a woman, with the octave coupling as a parallel to the difference between female and male voices.\u2019<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn55\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref55\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>55<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-22.jpg\" alt=\"Antique double-manual virginal with richly detailed Baroque design and an open lid painted with an elegant outdoor scene. The lid artwork depicts finely dressed figures engaging in music and leisure along a riverside garden with boats, trees, and grand architecture in the background. The instrument features intricate gold and green decorative motifs around the keyboards and soundboard, with Latin text \u201cMVSICA DVLCE LABORVM LEVAMEN\u201d (\u201cMusic is the sweet relief of labor\u201d) inscribed on the front panel. The instrument rests on a dark wooden base, highlighting its ornate craftsmanship and historical elegance\" width=\"991\" height=\"636\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8236\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-22.jpg 991w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-22-300x193.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-22-150x96.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-22-768x493.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-22-850x546.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 991px) 100vw, 991px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 22:<\/b> Hans Ruckers the Elder, <em>Double Virginal<\/em>, 1581, Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, 29.90; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503676\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503676<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The decoration on Marten van der Biest\u2019s double virginal (Fig.&#160;23) is frequently compared with that of the abovementioned Ruckers instrument.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn56\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref56\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>56<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> It was probably commissioned by Alessandro Farnese, governor of the Spanish Netherlands. His portrait and those of six other aristocrats including his uncle, Philip&#160;II of Spain, are to be found on tokens mounted on the front board and surrounded by elaborate ornamentation. The absence of a portrait of Farnese\u2019s wife Maria of Portugal (who had already died in 1578) in combination with both the motto \u2018Espoir confoirte\u2019 (\u2018Hope sustains\u2019) on the inside of the lid flap and the painting on the lid, which can be interpreted as a \u2018garden of love\u2019 painting, indicates the decoration\u2019s function \u2013 which goes far beyond mere representation. The painting on the lid suggests a seemingly free and life-affirming Flemish society, but the biblical theme on the lid flap \u2013 <em>The Obsessed Saul Pursues David <\/em><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn57\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref57\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>57<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> \u2013 stems from a religious and spiritual sphere which, of course, still played a determining role in people\u2019s lives during the 16th century.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23.jpg\" alt=\"Ornate double-manual virginal with its lid open, revealing richly detailed Baroque artwork and intricate craftsmanship. The inner lid painting depicts an elegant garden scene with finely dressed figures gathered around a central fountain, set against a grand castle and sunset landscape. The upper lid shows smaller painted panels featuring musical instruments and interior scenes. The instrument itself is decorated with gilded floral motifs, circular rosettes, and patterned panels in red, gold, and cream tones. Two stacked keyboards with ivory and ebony keys emphasize its elaborate design and musical sophistication\" width=\"1273\" height=\"816\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8237\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23.jpg 1273w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23-300x192.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23-1024x656.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23-150x96.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23-768x492.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-23-850x545.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1273px) 100vw, 1273px\" \/><\/p>\n<div>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 23:<\/b> Marten van der Biest, <em>Double Virginal<\/em>, 1580, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/MI85\">http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/MI85<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Another facet of Flemish life, the image of the common people indulging in wine, games, and dance, can be found on the virginal by Johannes Grouwels, c.&#160;1580, at the Musical Instruments Museum in Brussels (Fig.&#160;24). This depiction likewise imagines an idealised segment of reality, which cannot have been nearly so light-hearted amidst the upheavals of the Eighty Years\u2019 War and the attendant religious and political struggles. The scene, painted in grisaille and rich in detail, clearly depicts the exuberant hustle and bustle on St. George\u2019s Day \u2013 which, in Flanders and elsewhere, marked the transition from winter to spring and was traditionally celebrated with large fairs. In the background, against a backdrop of typical Flemish buildings, a St. George\u2019s ritual can be seen with a performer in the role of the saint fighting against a wooden dragon. The dragon is meant as a symbol of winter and evil. Grouped around a tree in the foreground is a moral admonition concerning various vices that are explored in numerous topoi: drunkenness, gluttony, quarrelsomeness, lust, gambling. Pieter Balten, David Tenier the Younger, and especially Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Pieter Brueghel the Younger, and Jan Brueghel the Elder are known for their bawdy scenes set at St George\u2019s Fair. Both the commissioner and the painter of this virginal from 1580 showed that they were familiar with the artistic standards of their time. Detailed depictions of village and patronal festivities were part of the popular genre of peasant and village life in the 16th and 17th centuries and probably hung primarily in the homes of wealthy people. It is in such a context that one must also view this virginal, whose lid painting not only reflects Flemish cultural idiosyncrasies but also unites traditional content with modern expressivity \u2013 for behind this projection of exuberant <em>joie de vivre<\/em>, a moralizing pointed finger lies hidden.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-24.jpg\" alt=\"Virginal on a dark wooden stand, featuring an open lid decorated with a detailed painting in muted tones. The artwork inside the lid depicts a lively village scene with elegantly dressed figures, musicians, and dancers set among trees and tall gabled buildings. The instrument\u2019s exterior has a mottled green finish with subtle decorative texture, while the keyboard area shows intricate floral patterns around the keys. The instrument combines refined craftsmanship with artistic decoration, typical of early Baroque European design.\" width=\"471\" height=\"378\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8238\" style=\"display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-24.jpg 471w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-24-300x241.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-24-150x120.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 471px) 100vw, 471px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 24<\/b> Johannes Grouwels, <em>Virginal<\/em>, c.&#160;1580, Musical Instrument Museum, Brussels, 2929; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/carmentis.be\/eMP\/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&amp;module=collection&amp;objectId=106117&amp;viewType=detailView\">https:\/\/carmentis.be\/eMP\/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&amp;module=collection&amp;objectId=106117&amp;viewType=detailView<\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"5\">Epochal Spillover<\/h4>\n<p>In my research, I have noticed again and again how certain patterns and motifs frequently form new \u2018recompositions\u2019 over the centuries. For this phenomenon, I would like to borrow a term from literature or historiography originally coined by Gregor von Rezzori: <em>Epochenverschleppung<\/em>.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn58\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref58\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>58<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> By this, he meant the \u2018anachronistic spillover of elements of reality specific to one epoch into a following one\u2019. Such elements do not all share the same inertia, with some persisting beyond their time and conveying a certain mood or ambience despite being functionally obsolete. For example, ancient gods and figures from Greco-Roman mythology continue to feature in works of art and entertainment of all kinds today. And in the context of the 16th century, this admixture of ancient and modern ingredients is among the striking phenomena in the realm of decoration. In instrument decoration, as well, the rapid adoption of new artistic innovations \u2013 above all scrollwork and strapwork, jewelled ornamentation, and the decorative cartouche \u2013 alongside references to the old repertory of forms is likewise remarkable. Moreover, there is evidence that instrument makers adopted even peripheral stylistic developments.<\/p>\n<p>The claviorgan of the Antwerpian instrument maker Lodewjk Theewes, who worked in England beginning in 1579 (Figs.&#160;25-6), is a typical example of such mixing of components from different artistic epochs. The oak case is painted in various colours, with its surface vertically divided by pilasters featuring gilded Ionic capitals \u2013 i.e., elements from the repertory of ancient forms. The marbled surfaces, however, are structured quite sculpturally with the newest strapwork and jewelled ornamentation. This new type of illusionistic strapwork with diamond rustication had been developed barely 20&#160;years earlier by Cornelis Floris, disseminated by the Dutch painter Hans Vredeman de Vries, and one occasionally finds it transformed into compartmentalised patterns suggestive of cut jewels. On the inside of the instrument\u2019s lid there is likewise a contemporary strapwork cartouche \u2013 which, however, contains a scene from the ancient Orpheus myth. Next to it are grotesque motifs and garlands of fruit, which had been incorporated into Renaissance art especially since the rediscovery of the ancient Domus Aurea in Rome at the end of the 15th century. The depictions of monkeys, on the other hand, are borrowed from playing cards designed by the contemporary Nuremberg artist Virgil Solis around 1550 (Fig.&#160;27). It was thus that an individual design was synthesised from elements of different artistic periods, thereby taking into account both the humanistic educational canon and the modern need for representation.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25.jpg\" alt=\"Claviorgan with an ornate wooden case and a partially open lid revealing decorative painted panels. The instrument is set atop an elaborately crafted cabinet base featuring geometric inlays, gilded accents, and intricate paneling in red, green, and gold tones. The harpsichord\u2019s lid interior displays a painted design with floral and heraldic motifs, while the keyboard area remains plain wood, highlighting contrast between simplicity and luxury. The structure exemplifies high-level craftsmanship from the 16th or 17th century, merging musical function with fine furniture artistry.\" width=\"1930\" height=\"1949\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8239\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25.jpg 1930w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25-297x300.jpg 297w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25-1014x1024.jpg 1014w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25-768x776.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25-1521x1536.jpg 1521w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-25-850x858.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1930px) 100vw, 1930px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><span class=\"Fett\">Fig.&#160;25<\/span>: Lodewjk Theewes, <em>Claviorgan<\/em>, 1579, Victoria and Albert Museum, 125EE-1890; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O60635\/the-theewes-claviorgan-claviorgan-theewes-lodewyk\/\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O60635\/the-theewes-claviorgan-claviorgan-theewes-lodewyk\/<\/a> \u2013 image&#160;1&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26.jpg\" alt=\"Claviorgan integrated into an ornate wooden cabinet, displayed in an elaborately paneled interior. The instrument features richly decorated panels in red, green, and gold with geometric and heraldic motifs framed by gilded accents. The open lid reveals painted scenes with intricate scrollwork and a central medallion depicting a pastoral landscape. The instrument\u2019s base includes detailed carved columns and inlaid designs, blending fine furniture craftsmanship with musical artistry typical of 16th\u201317th century design.\" width=\"2019\" height=\"1805\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8240\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26.jpg 2019w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26-300x268.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26-1024x915.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26-150x134.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26-768x687.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26-1536x1373.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-26-850x760.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2019px) 100vw, 2019px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 26:<\/b> Lodewjk Theewes, <em>Claviorgan<\/em>, 1579, Victoria and Albert Museum, 125EE-1890, lid; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O60635\/the-theewes-claviorgan-claviorgan-theewes-lodewyk\/\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O60635\/the-theewes-claviorgan-claviorgan-theewes-lodewyk\/<\/a> \u2013 image&#160;2&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-27.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance-style engraving depicting two monkeys sitting on ornate drapery, one playing a wind instrument facing the other. Below them, a large decorative urn filled with fruit and foliage is flanked by two banners inscribed with \u201cSPQR,\u201d referencing ancient Rome. The composition is framed by symmetrical scrollwork and stylized plant motifs, combining humor and classical symbolism. The engraving is marked with the Roman numeral \u201cII\u201d at the top.\" width=\"811\" height=\"1262\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8241\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-27.jpg 811w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-27-193x300.jpg 193w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-27-658x1024.jpg 658w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-27-96x150.jpg 96w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-27-768x1195.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 811px) 100vw, 811px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 27<\/b> Virgil Solis, <em>Playing Cards<\/em>, Nuremberg c.&#160;1550, etching\/paper, 9.3 x 6&#160;cm, British Museum London, 1854, 1113.207; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.britishmuseum.org\/collection\/object\/P_1854-1113-207\">https:\/\/www.britishmuseum.org\/collection\/object\/P_1854-1113-207<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Decoration in the 16th century thus fed on numerous stylistic and textual sources, which were combined on instruments in every conceivable variation. These include elements of Gothic sacred art with trefoils and quatrefoils on the key fronts and rose, for example, as on the harpsichord by Vito Trasuntino from 1560 (Fig.&#160;28), or with arabesques and mauresques from the Islamic style as seen on the virginals by Portalupi 1523 (Fig.&#160;29) and Benedetto Floriani 1571 (Fig.&#160;30); but they also include features from the stylistic repertoire of antiquity and its Renaissance revisions such as the bead and reel, dentils, acanthus leaves, friezes, pilasters, and capitals, as seen on the harpsichord by Giovanni Antonio Baffo in the Victoria and Albert Museum London (Fig.&#160;31).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate circular sound hole rosette carved into the wooden soundboard of an antique harpsichord. The intricate Gothic-style design features interlacing floral and geometric patterns forming a symmetrical star or flower motif. The finely detailed latticework contrasts with the smooth, aged wood surrounding it, highlighting expert craftsmanship and historical artistry.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1920\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8288\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-28-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 28:<\/b> Vito Trasuntino, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, 1560, Berlin Musical Instrument Museum, 806 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-scaled.jpeg\" alt=\"Antique Italian harpsichord with intricate floral ivory inlay and dark wood finish, standing on four fluted legs connected by a carved stretcher. The body features ornate white vine patterns along the sides and front, with a keyboard of alternating white and dark keys. The front panel bears an inscription reading \u201cFrancisci de Portalupis Veronensis Opus MDXXIII,\u201d indicating it was crafted in 1523. This Renaissance-era musical instrument exemplifies fine craftsmanship and decorative artistry.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1869\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8289\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-scaled.jpeg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-300x219.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-1024x748.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-150x110.jpeg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-768x561.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-1536x1122.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-2048x1495.jpeg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-29-850x621.jpeg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 29:<\/b> Francesco de Portalupi, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1523, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique Paris, E.3\/C.313; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr\/doc\/MUSEE\/0130476\">https:\/\/collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr\/doc\/MUSEE\/0130476<\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30.jpg\" alt=\"A historical polygonal virginal from 1571 crafted by Benedicti Floriani. The instrument features a richly decorated wooden case with intricate gold and black patterns and a Latin inscription reading \u201cBenedicti Floriani MDLXX.\u201d The virginal has a single keyboard and strings arranged diagonally within the rectangular body.\" width=\"2484\" height=\"1232\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8290\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30.jpg 2484w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-300x149.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-1024x508.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-150x74.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-768x381.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-1536x762.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-2048x1016.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-30-850x422.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2484px) 100vw, 2484px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 30:<\/b> Benedetto Floriani, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1571, Grassi Museum, Leipzig, 33 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31.jpg\" alt=\"Ornate antique harpsichord with elaborate hand-painted decorations on the inside lid, featuring mythological and classical scenes surrounded by intricate floral and geometric patterns. The outer case is dark with gold detailing, creating a striking contrast with the richly painted interior.\" width=\"2500\" height=\"1622\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8291\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31.jpg 2500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-300x195.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-1024x664.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-150x97.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-768x498.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-1536x997.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-2048x1329.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-31-850x551.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2500px) 100vw, 2500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 31:<\/b> Giovanni Antonio Baffo, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, 1574, Victoria and Albert Museum, 6007:1 to 3-1859; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58982\/baffo-harpsichord-harpsichord-baffo-giovanni-antonio\/?carousel-image=2006AY2277\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58982\/baffo-harpsichord-harpsichord-baffo-giovanni-antonio\/?carousel-image=2006AY2277<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Techniques ranged from incrustation to trompe l\u2019\u0153il intarsia and from painting to carving, as on an Italian virginal of 1540 (Fig.&#160;32) and the 16th-century Italian virginal at the Mus\u00e9e de la Musique in Paris (Fig.&#160;33). Motifs were geometric, plant-like, and figurative, and all were possessed of a symbolic character \u2013 like, for example, the dolphin, which frequently appears in ornamentation and lid paintings and probably referred to Arion, the legendary singer and poet (7th century BC).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn59\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref59\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>59<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate antique virginal, featuring richly carved and gilded wood decorations. The image shows detailed floral and scrollwork carvings, a small sculpted figure, and inlaid geometric patterns. The keys are made of ivory and dark wood, and part of an inscription in gold lettering is visible above them.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"1076\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8242\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32.jpg 1200w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32-300x269.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32-1024x918.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32-150x135.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32-768x689.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-32-850x762.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 32:<\/b> Anon., <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1540, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 53.6a,b; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503043\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503043<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate antique virginal, featuring intricate wood inlay patterns and detailed carvings. The left panel displays a geometric cube motif, while the right panel shows diamond-shaped square designs. Between them is a carved wooden figure with a human bust. The ivory and black keys are visible at the bottom, and a black frame with decorative knobs runs along the top edge.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1878\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8292\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-300x220.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-1024x751.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-150x110.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-768x563.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-1536x1127.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-2048x1503.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-33-850x624.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 33:<\/b> Anon., <em>Virginal<\/em>, 16th century, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique, Paris, E.4; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mimo-international.com\/media\/CM\/IMAGE\/CMIM000030589.jpg?_ga=2.265543375.1395436086.1658768689-146864436.1616342545\">https:\/\/mimo-international.com\/media\/CM\/IMAGE\/CMIM000030589.jpg?_ga=2.265543375.1395436086.1658768689-146864436.1616342545<\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Modern replicas of historical keyboard instruments are rarely without any traditional decorative elements. And although the individual motifs have largely lost their symbolic power, they continue to project an \u2018appearance of dignity and luxury\u2019.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn60\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref60\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>60<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"6\">Mottos<\/h4>\n<p><em>Epochal spillover<\/em> can also be discerned in another type of keyboard ornamentation \u2013 that of mottos. These draw on past eras, especially antiquity, and were apparently still considered relevant, even though they only partially or minimally correspond to the respective present in terms of both form and content. One example is the virginal by Ioannes Ruckers from 1598 at the Mus\u00e9e de la Musique in Paris (Fig.&#160;34). The motto \u2018Dulcisonum reficit tristia corda melos\u2019 (\u2018A sweet-sounding melody refreshes sorrowful hearts\u2019) was attributed to Eobanus Hessus (1488\u20131540) in Robert Burton\u2019s 1621 book <em>The Anatomy of Melancholy<\/em><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn61\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref61\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>61<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and can be found on at least two further Ruckers instruments.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn62\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref62\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>62<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The motto is written in capital letters, clearly reminiscent of the ancient Roman form of writing known as <em>capitalis monumentalis<\/em> \u2013 including the typical V for the vowel U.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34.jpg\" alt=\"A richly decorated antique virginal in a museum setting. The instrument features intricate floral and geometric patterns in black and gold across its body and lid. The lid bears a Latin inscription reading \u201cDVLCISONVM REFICIT TRISTIA CORDA MELOS\u201d with the date 1598. The harpsichord stands on a dark wooden base with turned supports, set against a neutral wall and floor.\" width=\"2010\" height=\"1901\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8293\" style=\"width:85%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34.jpg 2010w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34-300x284.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34-1024x968.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34-150x142.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34-768x726.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34-1536x1453.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-34-850x804.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2010px) 100vw, 2010px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 34:<\/b> Ioannes Ruckers, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1598, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique, Paris, E.979.2.6; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:VirginalRuckers.JPG\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:VirginalRuckers.JPG<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The inscription of mottos became a widespread feature in the decoration of keyboard instruments during the 16th century and persisted until the mid-17th century. I found a total of 160&#160;instruments with mottos; between them, they bore 110&#160;different mottos (since some appeared more than once). The 16th century accounts for about a third of these, the 17th century for the rest.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn63\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref63\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>63<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>This period was also, at least north of the Alps, characterized by the Reformation with its turn away from images and towards the verbal, towards writing. The documented enthusiasm for written and printed aphorisms in everyday life<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn64\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref64\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>64<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> flourished particularly in Antwerp, which, alongside Paris and Venice, was one of the three leading centres of early book printing in the late 15th and 16th centuries. Religious and economic factors as well as the flourishing of emblems as an art form were some of the further reasons why both objects and walls were now frequently inscribed with witty or religious sayings. It was probably due to all of this that mottos became popular:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">[<\/span><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">\u2026] im sechzehnten Seculo war es sonderlich Mode dass die Standes-Personen und die vom Adel, fast allenthalben [\u2026] auch an [\u2026] Kisten und K\u00e4sten ihre Wappen malen lie\u00dfen. So lie\u00dfen auch diejenigen, die Liebhaber des Wortes Gottes waren, an die W\u00e4nde, T\u00fcren und \u00fcberall, Spr\u00fcche aus heiliger g\u00f6ttlicher Schrift und Gesetze aus Christlichen Liedern, anschreiben.<\/span><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn65\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref65\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>65<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018[\u2026] in the sixteenth century, it was particularly fashionable for people of rank and nobility to have their coats of arms painted almost everywhere [\u2026] even on [\u2026] boxes and chests. And similarly, those who were lovers of the Word of God had sayings from holy divine scripture and guidance from Christian songs inscribed on walls, doors, and everywhere.\u2019)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Instruments were also frequently decorated with so-called mottos instead of elaborate and hence sometimes costly paintings. Such mottos were aphorisms or devices that often achieve their striking effect without further decoration, though some were also meant to be read in connection with a painting. They were frequently taken from the Bible, especially the Psalms, as well as from other religious writings or from ancient authors. Save for a few exceptions, mottos were inscribed in Latin. This had to do with ecclesiastical tradition as well as with the nascent internationalisation of the instrument trade. Latin was, after all, the early modern period\u2019s lingua franca just as English is in the present day.<\/p>\n<p>The employed mottos convey fundamentally religious or moral messages \u2013 promi&#173;nent among them admonishments concerning vanity or hubris and praise of God. A good example would be \u2018Gottes Wort bleibt ewick beistan den Armen als den Reichen\u2019 (\u2018God\u2019s word offers eternal succour to the poor as well as the rich\u2019), which is found on a 1537 harpsichord by Hans M\u00fcller that is now at the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome. There are also riddles and aphorisms related to music such as \u2018Io da le piaghe mie forma ricevo\u2019 (\u2018I am given my form by the blows inflicted upon me\u2019), which is inscribed on the inside of the lid on a 1527 virginal by Franciscus Patavinus at the Brussels Musical Instrument Museum, or \u2018Per Aures Ad Animum\u2019 (\u2018Through The Ears To The Soul\u2019) and \u2018Musica Dei Donum\u2019 (\u2018Music Is A Gift From God\u2019) on a Lodewijk Theewes virginal from around 1570 (Fig.&#160;35).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35.png\" alt=\"Antique Italian virginal from the 16th century, crafted in dark wood with intricate gold and painted decorations on the lid and front panels. The instrument features a rectangular case with a single manual keyboard of alternating light and dark keys, supported by four turned legs connected with stretchers. The inner lid displays ornate diamond-shaped motifs with floral and mythological designs, and Latin inscriptions in gilded lettering.\" width=\"1606\" height=\"1070\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8243\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35.png 1606w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35-300x200.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35-1024x682.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35-150x100.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35-768x512.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35-1536x1023.png 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-35-850x566.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1606px) 100vw, 1606px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 35:<\/b> Lodewijk Theewes, <em>Virginal<\/em>, c.&#160;1570, National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh; currently at Saint Cecilia\u2019s Hall, Edinburgh, 4336; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.ed.ac.uk\/stcecilias\/record\/96086\">https:\/\/collections.ed.ac.uk\/stcecilias\/record\/96086<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The phrase \u2018Laudate Dominum\u2019 (\u2018Praise ye the Lord\u2019) is the one found most frequently \u2013 20&#160;times \u2013 on the 16th-century harpsichords in my group of 160. On Jost Karest\u2019s virginal from 1548 (Fig.&#160;36), it is extended to \u2018Laudate Dominum in cordis et organo \u2013 Laudate eum in symbalis bene sonantibus \u2013 Omnis spiritus laudet Dominum in cordis et organo\u2019 (\u2018Praise the Lord with Strings and Organ \u2013 Praise Him with Sweet-Sounding Cymbals \u2013 Let Every Living Creature Praise the Lord with Strings and Organs\u2019) from Ps.&#160;150. The saying found most frequently on the examined instruments from the first half of the 17th century is \u2018Sic transit gloria mundi\u2019 (\u2018Thus passes the glory of the world\u2019), which from the early 15th century onwards was sung at papal coronations to emphasise the transience of earthly greatness. Its 17th-century popularity probably stemmed from a general attitude towards life following the 30&#160;Years\u2019 War. The motto appears on only four of the 16th-century instruments, for example on the jackrail of a Flemish octavo virginal from 1572.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn66\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref66\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>66<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-36.jpg\" alt=\"Antique polygonal virginal, made of varnished wood with a single manual keyboard featuring alternating light and dark keys. The rectangular and slightly trapezoidal case has Latin inscriptions engraved on the front panel. It misses a lid and thus reveals the inner strings. The design is simple yet elegant, showcasing Renaissance craftsmanship typical of 16th- to 17th-century instruments\" width=\"591\" height=\"221\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8244\" style=\"display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-36.jpg 591w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-36-300x112.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-36-150x56.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 591px) 100vw, 591px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 36:<\/b> Jost Karest, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1548, Musical Instrument Museum, Brussels, 1587; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.carmentis.be\/eMP\/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&amp;module=collection&amp;objectId=106055&amp;viewType=detailView\">https:\/\/www.carmentis.be:443\/eMP\/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&amp;module=collection&amp;objectId=106055&amp;viewType=detailView<\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The magnificent Flemish virginal from 1568 now at London\u2019s Victoria and Albert Museum (Fig.&#160;37) offers a veritable treasure trove of mottos. It bears no fewer than six sayings combined with scrolls, foliage and strapwork, miniature mythological scenes such as Orpheus with the wild beasts, and Duke Wilhelm von Cleve-J\u00fclich-Berg\u2019s coat of arms. The overall design unites praise of the Christian God (\u2018Laudate Dominum in chordis et in organo\u2019) with an invocation of pagan deities: \u2018Musica disparium dulcis concordia vocum pello levo placo tristia corda deos\u2019 (\u2018Music \u2013 the sweet harmony of disparate voices \u2013 banishes sorrow, lightens hearts, and pleases the gods.\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn67\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref67\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>67<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37.jpg\" alt=\"Renaissance-era virginal crafted from carved wood with elaborate decorative details and Latin inscriptions. The instrument features a rectangular case with a single manual keyboard of alternating light and dark keys, surrounded by ornate carvings of foliage and mythological motifs. The open lid reveals an intricate blue and gold painted interior with symmetrical scrollwork, gilded ornamentation, and the Latin phrase \u201cMVSICA DISPARIVM DVLCIS CONCORDIA VOCVM.\u201d\" width=\"2500\" height=\"1875\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8245\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37.jpg 2500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-37-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2500px) 100vw, 2500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 37:<\/b> Anon., <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1568, Victoria and Albert Museum, 447:1-1896; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O368610\/virginals-unknown\/\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O368610\/virginals-unknown\/<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The relationship between such mottos and emblematic art is clearly illustrated by the case of an Italian virginal dating from around 1550 (Fig.&#160;38) whose current attribution to Giovanni Francesco Antegnati, an instrument maker from Brescia, is in question.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn68\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref68\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>68<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> It bears the Latin motto \u2018Amoris vulnus idem qui sanat fecit\u2019 (\u2018The wounds of love can only be healed by the one who made them\u2019), which is taken from Publilius Syrus\u2019 <em>Sententiae <\/em>(1st&#160;century B.C.) and was widespread through late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Below it, two hands close upon a black scorpion. Typical of this kind of emblematic motto is the hidden meaning, which was meant to lead to \u2018further reflection\u2019 (\u2018ferneren Nachdencken\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn69\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref69\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>69<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> It permits several interpretations: it could have been the emblem of the client.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn70\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref70\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>70<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> It might have inhabited an erotic context, been intended to perform an apotropaic function, or been an astrological reference. But it might also have referred to the mythological story of Telephus, son of Heracles, whose wound from Achilles\u2019 spear could, according to the oracle, only be healed by the same spear.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn71\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref71\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>71<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Folk medicine likewise offers a possible interpretation in its promise that a scorpion sting could be healed by applying \u2018scorpion oil\u2019 produced by boiling a scorpion in oil: \u2018Der Scorpion mit seinem Gifft, Er t\u00f6dt den menschen den er trifft. Sein Oel gefahr und schmertzen nimbt, Heil offtmahls von den Feinden k\u00fcmbt\u2019 (\u2018The scorpion, with its poison, kills the man it strikes. Its oil removes peril and suffering: salvation often comes from one\u2019s enemies\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn72\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref72\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>72<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Musicians, on the other hand, might be more inclined here to think of the travails of skill acquisition and practise that are then \u2018cured\u2019 by the joy taken in one\u2019s facility and the music itself.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38.jpg\" alt=\"An ornate early virginal, with its lid open to reveal an intricate interior. The lid is decorated with a detailed floral pattern and a central painted medallion showing two hands clasping over a landscape, with Latin text on a scroll. The wooden keys and strings of the instrument are visible, surrounded by decorative motifs in gold and blue.\" width=\"2500\" height=\"1875\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8295\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38.jpg 2500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-38-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2500px) 100vw, 2500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 38:<\/b> Giovanni Francesco Antegnati (?), <em>Virginal<\/em>, c.&#160;1550, Victoria and Albert Museum, 490:1 to 3-1899; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58893\/virginal-antegnati-giovanni-francesco\/\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58893\/virginal-antegnati-giovanni-francesco\/<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In short, it can be said that the emergence of mottos on instruments exhibits points of contact with emblematic art in terms of form, that it was fed by the reception of ancient and medieval authors in terms of content, and, above all, that it was connected with historical religious and intellectual currents. These factors gave rise to the \u2018fashion\u2019 of using sayings as decoration. And, last but not least, financial considerations in the context of a growing sales market surely also contributed to makers offering cheaper decorations such as large-format sayings on rolls of paper in place of expensive paintings by artists.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"7\">Lid Paintings and their Painters<\/h4>\n<p>Due to their mostly unusual formats, instrument lids posed a unique challenge to decorators and painters. The spectrum ranged from pure amateurs to well-established artists, some of whom were indeed not of the first rank. But in terms of both content and style, they did frequently take their cue from the artistic elite to the extent that their ability allowed. Such artists almost never signed their work \u2013 which is unsurprising, since they hardly ever signed panel paintings to begin with. They were especially loathe to sign lid paintings, however, as these works were unlikely to bolster a fine artist\u2019s reputation. One reason fuelling the reluctance to be associated with such works may have been that with painting having finally been elevated from the <em>artes mechanicae <\/em>to the <em>artes<\/em> <em>liberales<\/em>, artists did not wish to debase themselves by dabbling in artisanship.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn73\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref73\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>73<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, some painters of lids are known by name. Giorgio Vasari, in his<em> Vite<\/em> (1550), wrote of several prominent painters who had provided organ cases with paintings. He also mentioned Angelo Bronzino in connection with a painting for a harpsichord.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn74\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref74\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>74<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> And the Flemish painter Carel van Mander, in his <em>Schilder-Boeck <\/em>(1617), mentioned Paul Bril \u2013 who \u2018began by painting keyboard instrument lids and the like with watercolours, which was what he had to rely upon for his sustenance until his fourteenth year.\u2019<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn75\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref75\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>75<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Where 16th-century lids are concerned, nearly all attributions are dubious; only for a few lids that have survived as paintings in museums can they be considered certain. Three fragments of instrument lids painted by Jacopo Robusti Tintoretto have survived, with other early panels of his likewise thought to have possibly had the same original purpose.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn76\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref76\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>76<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> All three of these paintings fulfil Lomazzo\u2019s demand for a contextual reference to music: <em>Concert of the Muses on Mount Helicon <\/em>(private collection, formerly in Neuilly), <em>The Musical Contest between Apollo and Marsyas <\/em>(Labadini Collection, Milan), and <em>The Contest between the Muses and Pierides <\/em>(Fig.&#160;39; Museo di Castelvecchio, Verona). In the last of these, Tintoretto illustrates an episode from Ovid\u2019s <em>Metamorphoses <\/em>(V&#160;294\u2013678) in which the nine daughters of the Macedonian King Pieros had challenged the Muses to a singing contest. The nymphs, who were called upon to judge, unanimously declared the goddesses \u2013 daughters of Zeus \u2013 to be the victors, with the Pierides being turned into cawing magpies as punishment for their arrogance. In this painting, the sentence has already been carried out; the Muses with their instruments are foregrounded, while the magpies flutter in the trees behind. This repeats a theme found on multiple lid paintings \u2013 that of mortals being chastised for the hubris of seeking to measure themselves with the divine.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-style painting depicting a group of women representing the muses gathered around an organ, playing various musical instruments. The women, dressed in flowing, richly colored garments, include players of lutes and stringed instruments, while one operates the organ at the center. The scene takes place in an outdoor setting with a dark, atmospheric background of trees and clouds. A sheet of music lies on the ground near the musicians.\" width=\"1654\" height=\"927\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8246\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39.jpg 1654w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39-300x168.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39-1024x574.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39-150x84.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39-768x430.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39-1536x861.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-39-850x476.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1654px) 100vw, 1654px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 39:<\/b> Jacopo Robusti Tintoretto, <em>The Contest between the Muses and Pierides<\/em>, c.&#160;1555, oil\/wood, 46 x 91&#160;cm, Museo di Castelvecchio Verona, Pallucchini-Rossi Cat. 102; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jacopo_tintoretto,_contesa_tra_le_muse_e_le_pieridi.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jacopo_tintoretto,_contesa_tra_le_muse_e_le_pieridi.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Another confirmed artist\u2019s name is that of Annibale Carracci, who (probably together with his brother Agostino) painted a harpsichord between 1597 and 1600.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn77\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref77\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>77<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The painting <em>Silenus Picking Grapes, <\/em>now recognised as a harpsichord lid, has already been mentioned (cf. Figs.&#160;12\u201314). The subject \u2013 the drunken, corpulent Silenus being hoisted by bearers to reach the grapes hanging from leafy vines \u2013 was borrowed from ancient reliefs during the Renaissance and disseminated through engravings such as the one by Albrecht D\u00fcrer after Andrea Mantegna (Fig.&#160;40). Annibale Carracci himself produced several variations on the motif during this period such as in his <em>Tazza Farnese <\/em>and the preceding studies, the most complete of which is now at the Metropolitan Museum (Fig.&#160;41), or in the ceiling fresco of the Galleria Farnese in Rome (Fig.&#160;42). Moreover, a pen-and-ink drawing by Carracci of a second scene in which two young satyrs help to pick grapes comes close to the original layout of the right part of the lid (Fig.&#160;43).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn78\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref78\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>78<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-40.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed Renaissance engraving depicting a mythological Bacchic scene. A group of muscular male figures, some part-human and part-goat (satyrs), are shown in animated poses beneath a grapevine arbor. At the center, a large, older man with a wreath of leaves, Silenus, is being supported by others as he sits or reclines. Around him, figures play instruments, dance, and carry companions.\" width=\"850\" height=\"580\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8296\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-40.jpg 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-40-300x205.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-40-150x102.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-40-768x524.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 850px) 100vw, 850px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 40:<\/b> Albrecht D\u00fcrer after Andrea Mantegna, <em>Bacchanal with Silenius, <\/em>1494, pen\/paper, 29.8 x 43.3&#160;cm, Albertina Museum, Vienna, 3060; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/sammlungenonline.albertina.at\/?query=search=\/record\/objectnumbersearch=%5b3060%5d&amp;showtype=record\">https:\/\/sammlungenonline.albertina.at\/?query=search=\/record\/objectnumbersearch=[3060]&amp;showtype=record<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41.jpg\" alt=\"A circular sepia-toned drawing depicting a mythological Bacchic scene. At the center, a reclining male figure, Silenus, is being supported and tended to by two satyrs\u2014one holding him up and the other offering a drink from a vessel. The group is framed by an ornate border of grapevines and leaves, with putti or small figures climbing and interacting among the vines.\" width=\"1772\" height=\"1778\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8297\" style=\"width:85%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41.jpg 1772w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41-1021x1024.jpg 1021w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41-768x771.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41-1531x1536.jpg 1531w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-41-850x853.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1772px) 100vw, 1772px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 41:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>The Drunken Silenus. Design for the \u2018Tazza Farnese\u2019<\/em>, 1599\u20131600, ink, washed\/paper, 25.6 x 25.5&#160;cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1972.133.4; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/338417\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/338417<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"A vibrant Renaissance fresco depicting a grand Bacchic procession. At the center, Bacchus, crowned with ivy, rides a golden chariot pulled by tigers, accompanied by Ariadne draped in blue. Around them, satyrs, maenads, and putti celebrate with dancing, music, and flowing wine. Cherubs fly overhead carrying vessels and garlands, while animals such as goats and a donkey add to the lively scene.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1302\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8298\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-300x153.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-1024x521.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-150x76.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-768x390.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-1536x781.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-2048x1041.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-42-850x432.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 42:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>Triumphal Procession of Bacchus and Ariadne<\/em>, ceiling fresco of the Galleria Farnese, c.&#160;1600, Rome; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rome_Palazzo_Farnese_ceiling_Carracci_frescos_04.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rome_Palazzo_Farnese_ceiling_Carracci_frescos_04.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43.png\" alt=\"A sepia-toned Renaissance drawing depicting two satyrs climbing and hanging from grapevines heavy with fruit. The satyr on the left reaches upward to grasp a cluster of grapes, while the one on the right looks toward him, smiling, and holds onto a vine-covered tree trunk. The background features a softly sketched pastoral landscape with rolling hills and a distant mountain.\" width=\"1394\" height=\"823\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8299\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43.png 1394w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43-300x177.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43-1024x605.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43-150x89.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43-768x453.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43-850x502.png 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-43-413x244.png 413w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1394px) 100vw, 1394px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 43:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>Two Young Satyrs Picking Grapes<\/em>, c.&#160;1597\u20131600, pen and chalk\/paper, 23 x 39.9&#160;cm, St\u00e4del Museum, Frankfurt, 4272; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.staedelmuseum.de\/go\/ds\/4272z\">https:\/\/www.staedelmuseum.de\/go\/ds\/4272z<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>For the lid\u2019s front flap (Fig.&#160;44), Carracci\u2019s preliminary studies have been preserved at the St\u00e4del Museum in Frankfurt, the Royal Collection in Windsor, and the Louvre in Paris (Figs.&#160;45\u20137). Possible models for these studies are an ancient copy of the sculpture <em>Pan and Daphnis <\/em>by Heliodorus and the cameo <em>Apollo, Marsyas and Olympus <\/em>by Dioscurides.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn79\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref79\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>79<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Both works (Figs.&#160;48\u20139), now at the Archaeological Museum of Naples, were in the Farnese Collection at that time. These antiquities were highly prized and inspired several artists: e.g., the sculpture was painted in oil by members of the school of Giulio Romano (Fig.&#160;50), while Sandro Botticelli\u2019s portrait of Simonetta Vespucci shows the cameo being worn on a necklace (Fig.&#160;51). Fulvio Orsini, who commissioned the harpsichord designed by Carracci, was a scholar, librarian, and curator of the Farnese collection and had access to its antiquities. Carracci worked on the frescoes in the Galleria Farnese in Rome from 1597 to 1602 and had used that opportunity to study the extensive collection there, drawing inspiration for the harpsichord\u2019s design. The front flap depicts a seated Marsyas and the panpipe-playing Olympus in an open landscape. The figure of Marsyas resembles the study at the Louvre known as <em>Silenus<\/em>, whose head in turn was based on the cameo. The double aulos hanging from the tree is likewise borrowed from the cameo. The figure of Olympus, on the other hand, clearly takes its inspiration from the ancient sculpture after Heliodorus; Carracci\u2019s red chalk study of it, entitled <em>Bacchus<\/em>, has same characteristic leg posture. And the entirety of the pen-and-ink drawing <em>Flute-Playing Cupid and Silenus in an Arcadian Landscape, <\/em>with its merely impliedlandscape and cut-off trees,clearly exhibits some connection with the lid painting.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44-.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting depicting two mythological figures, Olympus playing panpipes and Marsyas seated beside him. They are positioned outdoors in a pastoral landscape with trees, rolling hills, and a cloudy sky. The younger figure, Olympus, leans against a tree while playing, and the older one, Marsyas, draped in animal fur, sits thoughtfully on the ground. A second set of panpipes hangs from a nearby tree.\" width=\"1654\" height=\"713\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8247\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44-.jpg 1654w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44--300x129.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44--1024x441.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44--150x65.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44--768x331.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44--1536x662.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-44--850x366.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1654px) 100vw, 1654px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Fiure 44:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>Marsyas and Olympus<\/em>, 1597\u20131600, oil\/wood, 34.4 x 84.2&#160;cm, National Gallery, London, NG94; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/annibale-carracci-marsyas-and-olympus\">https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/annibale-carracci-&#173;marsyas-&#173;and-olympus<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45.png\" alt=\"A sepia ink drawing depicting two mythological figures, Cupid and Silenus, seated beneath trees in a pastoral landscape. The figure on the left (Cupid) plays a set of panpipes while leaning against a tree, and the figure on the right (Silenus) sits with arms crossed, gazing toward the musician. Goats graze in the background among gently rolling hills\" width=\"1394\" height=\"660\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45.png 1394w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45-300x142.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45-1024x485.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45-150x71.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45-768x364.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-45-850x402.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1394px) 100vw, 1394px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 45:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>Flute-Playing Cupid and Silenus in an Arcadian landscape<\/em>, c. 1597\u20131600, pen and chalk washed\/paper, 10.8 x 23.6&#160;cm, St\u00e4del Museum Frankfurt, 642; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.staedelmuseum.de\/go\/ds\/462z\">https:\/\/www.staedelmuseum.de\/go\/ds\/462z<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46.jpg\" alt=\"A red chalk drawing depicting Bacchus as a youthful male figure, standing and playing a set of panpipes. The figure is nude, rendered with soft shading and fluid lines, conveying a sense of gentle movement. Behind him, faint sketch lines suggest an earlier or alternative pose.\" width=\"1199\" height=\"2000\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8248\" style=\"width:55%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46.jpg 1199w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46-180x300.jpg 180w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46-614x1024.jpg 614w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46-90x150.jpg 90w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46-768x1281.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46-921x1536.jpg 921w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-46-850x1418.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1199px) 100vw, 1199px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 46:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>Bacchus, <\/em>chalk\/paper, Royal Collection, Windsor, RCIN 901784; &lt;https:\/\/www.rct.uk\/collection\/search#\/8\/collection\/901784&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-47.jpg\" alt=\"A chalk drawing on blue-gray paper depicting a seated bearded man, Silenus, with arms crossed over his knees. The figure is nude, rendered with soft shading and delicate contours that emphasize the muscular form. His expression appears contemplative, and the use of light and shadow creates a sense of quiet introspection.\" width=\"659\" height=\"768\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8249\" style=\"width:55%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-47.jpg 659w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-47-257x300.jpg 257w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-47-129x150.jpg 129w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 659px) 100vw, 659px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 47:<\/b> Annibale Carracci, <em>Seated Silen, <\/em>1595\/99, pierre noir\/paper, 27.3 x 23.5&#160;cm, Louvre, Paris, 7338r; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/3\/4256-Silene-assis-max\">http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/3\/4256-Silene-assis-max<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48.jpg\" alt=\"A classical marble sculpture depicting the god Pan teaching the young shepherd Daphnis to play the panpipes. Pan, identifiable by his goat legs, horns, and beard, sits on a rock with one arm resting affectionately on Daphnis\u2019s shoulder, guiding his hands on the instrument. Daphnis stands beside him, gazing intently at the pipes. The figures are rendered with detailed anatomical precision and naturalistic expression.\" width=\"1383\" height=\"2174\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8301\" style=\"width:55%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48.jpg 1383w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-191x300.jpg 191w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-651x1024.jpg 651w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-95x150.jpg 95w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-768x1207.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-977x1536.jpg 977w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-1303x2048.jpg 1303w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-48-850x1336.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1383px) 100vw, 1383px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 48<\/b> Ancient copy after Heliodorus, <em>Pan and Daphnis<\/em>, c.&#160;100&#160;BC, marble, National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 6329; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ott\u016fv_slovn%C3%ADk_nau\u010dn\u00fd_-_obr\u00e1zek_\u010d._2999.JPG\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ott\u016fv_slovn%C3%ADk_nau\u010dn\u00fd_-_obr\u00e1zek_\u010d._2999.JPG<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-49.jpg\" alt=\"An ancient engraved gemstone depicting a mythological scene with three figures. On the left stands Marsyas, identifiable by his goat legs and horns, beside a tree with a shepherd\u2019s staff hanging from it. At the center, a smaller figure, Olympus, kneels, reaching toward a tall, nude male figure on the right, Apollo, holding a lyre.\" width=\"668\" height=\"850\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8250\" style=\"width:60%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-49.jpg 668w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-49-236x300.jpg 236w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-49-118x150.jpg 118w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 668px) 100vw, 668px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 49:<\/b> Dioskourides, <em>Apollo, Marsyas and Olympus, <\/em>1st century BC, carnelian, 4 x 3.4&#160;cm, National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 26051; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Seal_of_Nero.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Seal_of_Nero.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-50.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting depicting the god Pan teaching the young shepherd Daphnis to play the panpipes. Pan, characterized by his goat legs, horns, and beard, leans toward Daphnis with a guiding gesture, his hand directing the youth\u2019s fingers on the instrument. Daphnis, nude and youthful, looks toward Pan with a shy, uncertain expression. The scene unfolds in a lush, pastoral landscape with trees, a cloudy sky, and a grazing goat in the foreground.\" width=\"751\" height=\"1000\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8251\" style=\"width:55%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-50.jpg 751w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-50-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-50-113x150.jpg 113w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 751px) 100vw, 751px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 50:<\/b> School of Girolamo Romano, <em>Pan and Daphnis<\/em>, c.&#160;1500\u201350, oil\/wood, 24.8 x 18.7&#160;cm, Old Masters Picture Gallery, Dresden, 104; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/skd-online-collection.skd.museum\/Details\/Index\/295152\">https:\/\/skd-online-collection.skd.museum\/Details\/Index\/295152<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51.png\" alt=\"A Renaissance portrait of a young woman shown in profile against a dark background. She has long, wavy auburn hair intricately braided and adorned with pearls, ribbons, and a feathered ornament. She wears an elegant white gown with delicate embroidery and a necklace featuring a cameo pendant.\" width=\"1394\" height=\"2103\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8302\" style=\"width:55%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51.png 1394w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-199x300.png 199w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-679x1024.png 679w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-99x150.png 99w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-768x1159.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-1018x1536.png 1018w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-1358x2048.png 1358w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-51-850x1282.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1394px) 100vw, 1394px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"\/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 51:<\/b> Sandro Botticelli, <em>Idealised Portrait of a Lady (Portrait of Simonetta Vespucci as Nymph), <\/em>1480\u201385, mixed technique\/wood, 81.3 x 54&#160;cm, St\u00e4del Museum, Frankfurt, 936; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/staedelmuseum.de\/go\/ds\/936\">https:\/\/staedelmuseum.de\/go\/ds\/936<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>\u2018Definitively\u2019 attributed multiple times but with a complex history is the painting for an instrument lid \u2013 or, at least, for an instrument case \u2013 themed on the musical contest between Apollo and Marsyasby Angelo (di Cosimo Allori) Bronzino at the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg (Fig.&#160;52).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn80\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref80\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>80<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As several written sources document, Bronzino undoubtedly painted such an image for the Duke of Urbino, Guidobaldo II della Rovere, in 1531\u201332. During the mid-16th century, for example, Giorgio Vasari mentioned a \u2018cassa d\u2019arpicordo piena di figure, che fu cosa rara\u2019 (\u2018<em>arpicordo<\/em> case covered with figures, which was a rare thing\u2019) from Bronzino\u2019s hand.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn81\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref81\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>81<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> And in 1584, Raffaello Borghini described how Bronzino \u2018dipinse [\u2026] entro una cassa d\u2019Arpicordo la favola d\u2019Apollo, e di Marsia con molte figure, la qual opera \u00e9 tenuta cosa rarissima\u2019 (\u2018painted inside a harpsichord case the myth of Apollo and Marsyas with many figures, a work that is held to be a very rare thing\u2019).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn82\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref82\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>82<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In 1562, however, Giulio Sanuto made a three-plate engraving (Fig.&#160;53) in which he adapted the composition, replacing the background with a detail from Marcantonio Raimondi\u2019s engraving <em>The Parnassus <\/em>after Raphael and naming Correggio as the originator. This engraving was widely used, on account of which Bronzino\u2019s authorship was forgotten for a long time. During the 1840s, for example, Jacob Burckhardt saw \u2018die Innenseite eines \u201cKlavierdeckels\u201d mit der Geschichte des Apoll und Marsyas, angeblich von Coreggio, eher von Bacchiacca\u2019 (\u2018the inside of a \u201cclavier lid\u201d with the story of Apollo and Marsyas, supposedly by Coreggio, more likely by Bacchiacca\u2019) in a Milanese collection.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn83\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref83\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>83<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In 1865, the painting was finally purchased by the Russian Tsar for the Hermitage as a Correggio. It was not until 1913 that Hermann Voss recognised Bronzino\u2019s authorship,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn84\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref84\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>84<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> which was then generally accepted. The two undated red chalk studies for the figures of Midas and Marsyas, now at the Louvre, have also since been attributed to Bronzino (Figs.&#160;54\u20135). <\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52-.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting depicting a mythological scene set in a mountainous landscape. In the foreground, several semi-nude figures engage in dramatic and violent action \u2014 one man attacks Marsyas with a knife while others react in anguish or play instruments. To the right, seated and standing figures in draped garments observe, including a woman in armor and a crowned man holding a staff. In the background, smaller figures and classical buildings appear amid rolling hills and distant peaks.\" width=\"1902\" height=\"780\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8252\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52-.jpg 1902w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52--300x123.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52--1024x420.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52--150x62.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52--768x315.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52--1536x630.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-52--850x349.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1902px) 100vw, 1902px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 52:<\/b> Angelo Bronzino, <em>The Flaying of Marsyas, <\/em>1531\/32 (?), oil\/canvas (transferred from panel), 48 x 119&#160;cm, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, 250; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Angelo_Bronzino_-_Sfida_tra_apollo_e_marsia.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Angelo_Bronzino_-_Sfida_tra_apollo_e_marsia.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53.jpg\" alt=\"A large Renaissance engraving depicting a detailed mythological scene set in a vast landscape. On the right, several semi-nude figures gather\u2014one crowned and holding a staff, another blowing a horn, and a seated woman in classical dress beside a large inscribed tablet. In the center, a muscular figure attacks another (Marsyas) with a knife on rolling hills. To the left, women and children are shown near trees and a distant cityscape featuring domed buildings and towers.\" width=\"1654\" height=\"700\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8253\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53.jpg 1654w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53-300x127.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53-1024x433.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53-150x63.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53-768x325.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53-1536x650.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-53-850x360.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1654px) 100vw, 1654px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 53:<\/b> Giulio Sanuto after Angelo Bronzino, <em>Apollo and Marsyas<\/em>, 1562, copperplate engraving, 51.5 x 125&#160;cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, RP-P-1999-115; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/id.rijksmuseum.nl\/200483956\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/id.rijksmuseum.nl\/200483956<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>While Bronzino\u2019s authorship is now virtually beyond doubt, other questions remain: aside from the painting at the Hermitage, which was transferred from wood to canvas in 1865, there are two other near-identical panels in private collections (Figs.&#160;56\u20137) that some experts believe are likewise by the master while others do not.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn85\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref85\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>85<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Hypotheses of all kinds continue to be put forth, not just concerning their unusual formats (48 x 119 \u2013 82 x 122.5 \u2013 82.5 x 127)<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn86\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref86\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>86<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and support materials (with one having been transferred to canvas after the wood was damaged, one on walnut, and the third on an unknown type of wood). Discussion is also ongoing about the differences in the background design despite identical execution of the figures right down to their colouring, the uncertain intended use, and \u2013 above all \u2013 the provenance of two of the three paintings. In any case: the motif would have been ideally suited for instrument decoration, and it picks up on a theme that was, after all, also used on other lids. The composition effects the simultaneous depiction of several episodes from Ovid\u2019s ancient tale of the musical contest between Apollo and Marsyas in which Minerva and King Midas act as judges.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn87\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref87\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>87<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The contest takes place in the foreground at right, while in the middle and slightly farther back we see Marsyas\u2019 subsequent cruel flaying for presuming to challenge Apollo. Yet farther to the left and behind, we see Midas with the donkey\u2019s ears given him by Apollo for his foolishness in judging the satyr Marsyas to be superior to Apollo. Minerva, on the other hand, makes the musically and ethically correct judgment based on knowledge and wisdom.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn88\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref88\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>88<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> On the left in the middle ground, the royal barber consigns Midas\u2019s embarrassing secret to the earth. This painting\u2019s message lies in the continual conflict between the Apollonian and Dionysian principles,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn89\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref89\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>89<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the struggle between intellect and sensuality \u2013 and it also embodies a warning to the instrument\u2019s player against hubris and a lack of humility towards art.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-54.jpg\" alt=\"A red chalk drawing depicting a seated male nude figure. The man, Midas, is shown in a relaxed pose with his torso slightly turned, head tilted downward, and one arm resting on his thigh. The artist carefully models the anatomy with soft shading and confident lines, emphasizing the musculature and natural posture. The unfinished quality and delicate rendering suggest this is a preparatory study for a larger composition\" width=\"428\" height=\"601\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8254\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-54.jpg 428w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-54-214x300.jpg 214w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-54-107x150.jpg 107w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 428px) 100vw, 428px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 54:<\/b> Angelo Bronzino, <em>Midas<\/em>, red chalk study, 25.4 x 18&#160;cm, Louvre, Paris, 5923v; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/8\/233759-Etude-pour-le-roi-Midas-max\">http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/8\/233759-Etude-pour-le-roi-Midas-max<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-55.jpg\" alt=\"A red chalk drawing depicting a male nude figure playing the panpipes. The man (Marsyas) is shown from the torso up, with his head tilted back and arms raised as he brings the instrument to his lips. His muscles are finely rendered, capturing the tension of his pose and the expressive movement of performance. To the right, a faint sketch of a second figure appears unfinished. The drawing combines anatomical precision with dynamic energy\" width=\"427\" height=\"599\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8255\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-55.jpg 427w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-55-214x300.jpg 214w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-55-107x150.jpg 107w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 427px) 100vw, 427px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 55:<\/b> Angelo Bronzino, <em>Marsyas<\/em>, red chalk study, 25.4 x 18&#160;cm, Louvre, Paris, 5923r; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/7\/8299-Jeune-homme-nu-assis-jouant-de-la-flute-de-Pan-et-etude-dun-genou-max\">http:\/\/arts-graphiques.louvre.fr\/detail\/oeuvres\/7\/8299-Jeune-homme-nu-assis-jouant-de-la-flute-de-Pan-et-etude-dun-genou-max<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-56.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting depicting a mythological scene in a rugged landscape. Several semi-nude male and female figures are gathered on the right, some playing instruments and others in expressive poses. At the center, a man bends over another figure (Marsyas) in an act of violence. In the background, smaller figures and a distant village appear under a dramatic, cloudy sky. The composition combines human emotion and natural grandeur, emphasizing contrast between light and shadow in a classical setting.\" width=\"560\" height=\"380\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8256\" style=\"display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-56.jpg 560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-56-300x204.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-56-150x102.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 560px) 100vw, 560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 56:<\/b> Angelo Bronzino (?), <em>The Contest between Apollo and Marsyas<\/em>, 1531\/32 (?), oil\/wood, 82 x 122.5&#160;cm, private collection, New York; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.iconos.it\/le-metamorfosi-di-ovidio\/libro-vi\/apollo-e-marsia\/immagini\/43-apollo-e-marsia\/\">http:\/\/www.iconos.it\/le-metamorfosi-di-ovidio\/libro-vi\/apollo-e-marsia\/immagini\/43-apollo-e-marsia\/<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-57.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting depicting a dramatic mythological scene set in a mountainous landscape. In the foreground, several nude and semi-nude figures are engaged in intense activity \u2014 one man strangles another (Marsyas) while others look on or play instruments. A woman in a red dress stands to the left holding a staff, and a reclining figure lies nearby. In the background, a fortress or temple crowns a rocky hill under a stormy sky.\" width=\"886\" height=\"886\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8257\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-57.jpg 886w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-57-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-57-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-57-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-57-850x850.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 886px) 100vw, 886px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 57:<\/b> Angelo Bronzino (?), <em>The Contest between Apollo  and Marsyas, <\/em>1531\/32 (?), oil\/canvas, 82.5 x 127&#160;cm, Collezione Giorgio Baratti; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/artrabbit.com\/events\/timelessness-rose-king-galleries\">https:\/\/&#173;artrabbit.com\/events\/timelessness-rose-king-galleries<\/a>&gt; (ac&#173;&#173;cessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Lid paintings generally were not original designs by well-known artists; they can, however, often be traced back to \u2018prominent\u2019 panel paintings, drawings, copper engravings, and even sculptures. At the time, there was nothing dishonourable about imitating or referencing other masters\u2019 successful works; it was only as the 16th century wore on that original artistic invention began to be prized more highly than the skilful execution of an already canonised rendering of a theme. Today, determining the respective sources of a pictorial invention \u2013 which may have been based on strategies ranging from imitation to adaptation and on to the adoption of individual elements from various models in a building-block process \u2013 often requires meticulous detective work. In many cases, the decoration is based on models that were a hundred years older or more and themselves often inspired by ancient models.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the pictorial theme of Apollo in 16th-century lid paintings. Apollo is well known as the god of the arts and music and as the leader of the Muses, but also as a merciless punisher. Such depictions are probably inspired by the famous sculpture known as <em>The Apollo Belvedere<\/em>, which was discovered at the end of the 15th century, placed in the Vatican at the beginning of the 16th century, and subsequently made very popular by an engraving from the hand of Marcantonio Raimondi (Fig.&#160;58). This marble figure from the middle of the 2nd century AD is believed to be a replica of a Greek bronze original from around 330&#160;BC. Elements of this statue, such as the chlamys thrown over Apollo\u2019s shoulder, are imitated in modern representations of this god, just as he is generally shown \u2013 in keeping with the ancient myth \u2013 as an androgynous young man.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-58-.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed engraving of a classical male nude statue, depicted standing in a contrapposto pose. The figure, representing Apollo, is shown with a quiver of arrows on his shoulder and a cloak draped over his left arm. His right hand rests on a tree trunk entwined with a serpent. The anatomy is idealized and finely modeled, reflecting Renaissance admiration for ancient Greco-Roman sculpture and its harmony of form and proportion.\" width=\"681\" height=\"1200\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8258\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-58-.jpg 681w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-58--170x300.jpg 170w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-58--581x1024.jpg 581w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-58--85x150.jpg 85w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 681px) 100vw, 681px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 58:<\/b> Marcantonio Raimondi, <em>The Apollo Belvedere<\/em>, 1510\u201327, copperplate engraving, 29.1 x 16.2&#160;cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 49.97.114; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/342605\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/342605<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>A virginal by Dominicus Pisaurensis from 1566, now at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg (Fig.&#160;59), exemplifies this mix-and-match approach. On Mount Parnassus, Apollo strums his lyre surrounded by the nine Muses. The composition is borrowed from Raphael\u2019s famous fresco of 1511 in the Vatican (Fig.&#160;60). The central figure of Apollo, however, has its roots in a widely copied engraving by Marcantonio Raimondi from 1517\u201320 (Fig.&#160;61). Raphael had commissioned Raimondi to engrave his design for the rooms, but Raphael subsequently altered the figure of Apollo.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn90\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref90\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>90<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In the Vatican, Apollo is adorned with a laurel wreath and bows a <em>lira da braccio<\/em> with his eyes gazing up towards the heavens. In Raimondi\u2019s engraving, Apollo\u2019s posture is significantly more twisted, his head is tilted slightly downwards, and he plays a lyre supported on his left thigh. This version is found on the virginal lid, but with the laurel wreath replaced by a halo. The Muses here merely take inspiration from the original design, and Apollo sits at the same height as first among equals.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59.jpg\" alt=\"A virginal, displayed in a museum setting. The open lid reveals a painted panel depicting a mythological or allegorical scene of nine muses gathered outdoors, each holding musical instruments or scrolls. The frame of the lid is richly decorated with red and black ornamental motifs. The keyboard below has wooden keys, and the instrument\u2019s body features intricate marquetry and craftsmanship.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1920\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8259\" <span class=\"caption-text\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-59-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><b>Figure 59:<\/b> Dominicus Pisaurensis, <em>Virginal<\/em> 1566, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg, MIR 1086 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance fresco depicting an assembly of classical poets and muses gathered in a lush landscape beneath an arched architectural frame. At the center, Apollo sits playing a stringed instrument, surrounded by muses holding symbolic objects such as scrolls, lyres, and staffs. Figures in colorful flowing garments engage in conversation and gesture toward one another. Trees rise in the background under a clear blue sky, emphasizing the scene\u2019s idealized, divine atmosphere.\" width=\"1352\" height=\"850\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8260\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60.jpg 1352w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60-300x189.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60-1024x644.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60-150x94.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60-768x483.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-60-850x534.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1352px) 100vw, 1352px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 60:<\/b> Raphael, <em>Parnassus, Stanze del Vaticano, <\/em>1511, fresco, Rome; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Parnaso_02.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Parnaso_02.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed black-and-white engraving depicting a classical gathering of poets and muses in a wooded landscape. At the center, Apollo sits among seated and standing figures, playing a lyre as others hold scrolls, staffs, or musical instruments. Winged cherubs hover above, carrying laurel wreaths. The composition is framed by tall trees and a large architectural doorway at the bottom center.\" width=\"1654\" height=\"1241\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8305\" style=\"width:90%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61.jpg 1654w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-61-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1654px) 100vw, 1654px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 61:<\/b> Marcantonio Raimondi after Raphael, <em>Parnassus<\/em>, 1517\u201320, copperplate engraving, 34.4 x 46.4&#160;cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, RP-P-OB-12.130; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/id.rijksmuseum.nl\/200123922\">https:\/\/id.rijksmuseum.nl\/200123922<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Giovanni Baffo\u2019s harpsichord from 1574 is a different matter. This instrument was probably once owned by the noble Strozzi family<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn91\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref91\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>91<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and now is housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum (Fig.&#160;62). It is decorated with a remarkably faithful rendition of a 1557 engraving by Giorgio Ghisi after Luca Penni (1500\u201356) (Fig.&#160;63). Penni, as a pupil of Raphael, was intimately familiar with the works by the latter, and it is thus that his <em>Apollo and the Muses <\/em>is likewise inspired by the version in the Raphael Rooms shown above in Fig.&#160;60. The cartouche on the harpsichord, framed by grotesques, cannot contain all the details of Penni\u2019s original or Ghisi\u2019s engraving; however, as in the model, the nine Muses surround Apollo bowing his lira da braccio, who occupies an elevated position here as <em>Musagetes<\/em> (literally, leader of the muses). With the image already somewhat crowded, Pegasus only just squeezes into the cartouche.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62.jpg\" alt=\"A richly decorated panel from a harpsichord, featuring an elaborate painted scene surrounded by ornate designs. The central image depicts a group of classical figures, representing the Muses and Apollo, engaged in music and conversation, with instruments such as a lyre and an organ. Two winged allegorical figures recline above, holding a laurel wreath and a book. The surrounding decoration includes intricate scrollwork, masks, sphinxes, and floral motifs rendered in red, gold, and cream tones.\" width=\"2500\" height=\"1875\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8261\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62.jpg 2500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-62-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2500px) 100vw, 2500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 62:<\/b> Giovanni Baffo, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, 1574, Victoria and Albert Museum, 6007-1859; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58982\/baffo-harpsichord-harpsichord-baffo-giovanni-antonio\/?carousel-image=2009BY8531\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58982\/baffo-harpsichord-harpsichord-baffo-giovanni-antonio\/?carousel-image=2009BY8531<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed Renaissance engraving depicting Apollo and the Muses in a mythological landscape. At the center, Apollo sits on a rocky outcrop playing a stringed instrument, surrounded by muses engaged in music, poetry, and dance. Some hold lyres, tambourines, and other instruments, while cherubs hover above carrying laurel wreaths. Pegasus appears in the background, symbolizing poetic inspiration. The composition is framed with ornate borders and displays intricate line work.\" width=\"1772\" height=\"1409\" class=\"size-full wp-image-8262\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63.jpg 1772w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63-300x239.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63-1024x814.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63-150x119.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63-768x611.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63-1536x1221.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-63-850x676.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1772px) 100vw, 1772px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 63:<\/b> Giorgio Ghisi after Luca Penni, <em>Apollo and the Muses<\/em>, c.&#160;1557, copperplate engraving, 33 x 41.5&#160;cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 49.95.11; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/367534\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/367534<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>About a third of the examined instrumental paintings follow Lomazzo\u2019s recommendations about choosing a musical theme as do those just discussed. A remarkable constant, however, is that almost all of the depicted scenes take place outdoors. The landscape usually serves merely as a backdrop to the depicted narrative \u2013 just as the natural landscape only took on the status of an independent pictorial motif in panel painting at large from the first third of the 16th century onward.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn92\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref92\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>92<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> For the most part, it was human-cultivated environments and not the natural landscape that formed the setting for the \u2018actions\u2019 of the figures. Gardens and parks as well as real and fictitious <em>vedute<\/em> were preferred for this purpose, since uncultivated nature was still perceived as wild and threatening. For example, the oldest surviving virginal by Hans Rucker (Fig.&#160;64) shows a hunt for two bears that had probably ventured too close to human dwellings. Ten men, two of them on horseback, attack the bears with sticks and nine dogs while a woman watches from the safety of a house entrance.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64.jpg\" alt=\"A richly decorated virginal with intricate red, white, and gold floral designs on its case and keyboard area. The open lid features a painted pastoral scene depicting a lively hunting party with riders on horseback, dogs chasing game, and a distant manor house surrounded by trees. The instrument\u2019s craftsmanship and detailed artwork exemplify the opulence and artistic refinement of early modern European musical instruments, blending visual art with musical function.\" width=\"1482\" height=\"1024\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8306\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64.jpg 1482w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64-300x207.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64-1024x708.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64-150x104.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64-768x531.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64-320x220.jpg 320w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-64-850x587.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1482px) 100vw, 1482px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 64:<\/b> Hans Ruckers, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1583, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique, Paris, E.986.12; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Virginale_%28Mus\u00e9e_de_la_musique,_Philharmonie_de_Paris%29_%2816147420450%29.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Virginale_%28Mus\u00e9e_de_la_musique,_Philharmonie_de_Paris%29_%2816147420450%29.jpg<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Landscape generally serves as a foil for the various pictorial themes. For example, the virginal by Bruneto Veronensis from 1564 (Fig.&#160;65) shows an idealised version of tamed nature in the form of geometrically structured garden beds fronting a magnificent palace complex of typically Italianate appearance with a fountain and the obligatory musicians in the stage-like foreground. Here, as so often on instruments of this period, the natural landscape is pushed to the margins and kept in check by clear borders of one sort or another.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-65.jpg\" alt=\"A historical virginal displayed in a museum, featuring a richly painted interior lid. The artwork depicts a formal garden scene with fountains, pathways, and elegantly dressed figures strolling or conversing among manicured trees and architectural structures. The wooden instrument has a warm brown finish with a simple, elegant keyboard and decorative panels.\" width=\"800\" height=\"442\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8263\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-65.jpg 800w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-65-300x166.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-65-150x83.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-65-768x424.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 65<\/b> Bruneto Veronensis, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1564, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg, MIR 1082; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/MIR1082\">http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/MIR1082<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>It was not until the 17th century that lid paintings with Arcadian-style landscapes \u00e0 la Poussin and Lorrain appeared in which figures feature only as staffage and the landscape itself constitutes the main theme. The virginal of Donatus de Undeis from as early as 1590 (Fig.&#160;66) already shows a section of an idyllic coastal landscape of this type, with staffage figures playing music between ancient-seeming ruins.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66.jpg\" alt=\"An antique virginal with its lid open, revealing a painted interior scene of a serene landscape. The artwork depicts figures in the foreground beside trees, with a distant view of a calm body of water and a city skyline under a softly clouded sky. The harpsichord\u2019s wooden case is dark with simple floral motifs, and its natural wood keyboard and red felt lining add warmth to the design.\" width=\"1151\" height=\"634\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8264\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66.jpg 1151w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66-300x165.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66-1024x564.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66-150x83.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66-768x423.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-66-850x468.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1151px) 100vw, 1151px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 66:<\/b> Donatus de Undeis, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1590, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg, MIR 1087; &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/MIR1087\">http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/MIR1087<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).)<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Bodies of water, be they in the form of fountains, canals, streams, rivers, lakes, or the open sea, are a frequently occurring motif from nature. This should come as no surprise: the fleetingness of the moment, constant change, and motion characterise both water and music, for which reason painters doubtless employed water metaphorically. Seascapes, however, are found only sporadically in the 16th century; a rare example is a clavichord of unknown origin, now in the Mus\u00e9e de la Musique Paris, known as <em>de L\u00e9pante <\/em>(Fig.&#160;67). The painting on its lid probably commemorates the Battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the Christian powers of the Mediterranean were victorious against the Ottomans. Numerous prints and paintings \u2013 one example of which is the late 16th-century painting <em>The Battle of Lepanto <\/em>at the National Maritime Museum in London (Fig.&#160;68) \u2013 immortalised this event and could have served as models for the lid painting.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67.jpg\" alt=\"A historical clavichord with its lid open, revealing a vibrant painted scene of a naval battle. The artwork depicts numerous sailing ships engaged in combat, with billowing sails, cannon fire, and flags flying over turbulent blue waters near a rocky coastline. The instrument\u2019s exterior is decorated with floral motifs in red and gold, while the keyboard and inner mechanics are exposed, showcasing its intricate craftsmanship.\" width=\"2048\" height=\"1536\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8265\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-67-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2048px) 100vw, 2048px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 67:<\/b> Anon., <em>Clavichord<\/em>, 16th century, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique, Paris, E.2111; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Clavicorde_L\u00e9pante.JPG\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Clavicorde_L\u00e9pante.JPG<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68.jpg\" alt=\"A dramatic historical painting depicting a large-scale naval battle with numerous warships engaged in combat. The scene is filled with galleys and sailing vessels adorned with colorful flags and crosses, firing cannons that create clouds of smoke across the turbulent sea. Soldiers crowd the decks, and some ships are in flames or sinking. In the background, rocky shores and distant fortresses frame the chaos of the confrontation.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"670\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8266\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68.jpg 1280w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68-300x157.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68-1024x536.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68-150x79.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68-768x402.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-68-850x445.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 68:<\/b> Anon., <em>The Battle of Lepanto<\/em>, late 16th century, oil\/canvas, 127 x 232.4&#160;cm, National Maritime Museum, London, BHC0261; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.rmg.co.uk\/collections\/objects\/rmgc-object-11753\">https:\/\/www.rmg.co.uk\/collections\/objects\/rmgc-object-11753<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>One also finds Biblical and mythological themes embedded in landscapes. On the 1598 virginal by Alessandro Fabri in the Tagliavini Collection at the Museo di San Colombano in Bologna, one of the figures most symbolic of music, David, is positioned front and centre in an otherwise deserted landscape both as a king and as a psalmist with a harp (Fig.&#160;69). The rocky fortress towering on the horizon could refer to the Castle of Zion and David\u2019s prayer of thanksgiving, 2 Samuel 22:1\u20134: \u2018The Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my deliverer, the God of my rock, [\u2026] my high tower, my refuge, my saviour\u2019. The painting is attributed to the Greek-born painter Belisario Corenzio (1558\u2013after 1646), who was one of the most colourful artistic figures in Naples at the time.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn93\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref93\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>93<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"A wooden keyboard instrument with its lid open, revealing a painted interior panel. The artwork inside depicts a regal, crowned figure (King David) in a flowing robe holding a harp, standing in a lush landscape with trees, rolling hills, and distant ruins. The instrument\u2019s exterior features ornate carved and painted decoration, including a heraldic crest on the upper lid.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1665\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8267\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-300x195.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-1024x666.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-150x98.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-768x499.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-1536x999.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-2048x1332.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-69-850x553.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 69:<\/b> Alessandro Fabri, <em>Rectangular Spinet<\/em> (Naples, 1598), Tagliavini Collection, Bologna (Photo: Catalina Vicens, @Museo di San Colombano \u2013 Collezione Tagliavini, Genus Bononiae)<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In the 16th century, unlike during the 17th, bloody episodes from mythology and the Bible such as the contest between Apollo and Marsyas feature only occasionally. One of the few lid paintings of this kind, on an Italian harpsichord built by Joseph Salodiensis in 1559 (Figs.&#160;70\u20131), has an interesting history. The extant front flap and main lid of the lost protective case were both cut from older panel paintings and then joined together with hinges. In 1882, the Austrian painter Friedrich Amerling acquired the instrument along with its lid in Venice for his collection, presumably in part due to the attractive decoration.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn94\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref94\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>94<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The main lid shows only Apollo\u2019s flaying of the Dionysian flute player Marsyas without the preceding musical contest in which Apollo had triumphed. Marsyas\u2019 cruel punishment is contrasted with a small peasant dance scene in the background. The competing instruments, the Apollonian lyre and the Dionysian pan-flute, lie symbolically in the foreground. The theme on the front flap has no direct literary connection with that of the main lid: it shows an antique-style scene with women playing music. The anonymous painter probably assembled the pictorial composition here from parts of well-known panel paintings.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn95\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref95\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>95<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The posture and leg position of the unclothed singer in the foreground seem to be modelled on Titian\u2019s painting <em>Sacred and Profane Love <\/em>(1515) (Fig.&#160;72), and the two female gambists pictured at left are quite exact copies of the engraving <em>Mankind before the Flood<\/em> (Fig.&#160;73) by the Flemish painter and engraver Jan Sadeler&#160;I. Overall, one is reminded of Tintoretto\u2019s <em>Music-Making Women <\/em>(Fig.&#160;74).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-scaled.jpg\" alt=\" painted harpsichord lid depicting a mythological and pastoral scene. In the central panel, a figure dressed in red flays a satyr (Marsyas) beneath a tree in a wooded landscape. To the right, figures in colorful garments dance and converse in a lively village setting surrounded by trees and hills. On the left, partially nude figures recline and interact near architectural ruins.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1105\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8307\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-300x130.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-1024x442.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-150x65.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-768x332.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-1536x663.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-2048x884.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-70-850x367.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 70:<\/b> Joseph Salodiensis, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, 1559\/80, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, SAM 630 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71.jpg\" alt=\"A painted scene showing several partially nude and clothed women gathered in an outdoor setting with classical architecture in the background. One woman draped in a red cloth sits prominently in the foreground, turning slightly toward two other seated figures. Behind them, two women stand observing near a stone pedestal.\" width=\"1219\" height=\"733\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8268\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71.jpg 1219w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71-300x180.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71-1024x616.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71-150x90.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71-768x462.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-71-850x511.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1219px) 100vw, 1219px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 71:<\/b> Joseph Salodiensis, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, front cover, 1559\/80, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, SAM 630 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting showing two women seated on either side of a carved stone sarcophagus, with a small child or cherub between them. The woman on the left wears a voluminous white gown with red sleeves, while the woman on the right is mostly nude, draped in a red cloth and holding a dark vessel. The background reveals a serene landscape with trees, hills, and a distant town under a pale sky. The stone sarcophagus is decorated with reliefs of mythological figures.\" width=\"1452\" height=\"499\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8269\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72.jpg 1452w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72-300x103.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72-1024x352.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72-150x52.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72-768x264.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-72-850x292.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1452px) 100vw, 1452px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 72:<\/b> Titian, <em>Sacred and Profane Love, <\/em>1515, oil\/canvas, 118 x 278&#160;cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome, 147; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tizian_029.jpg?uselang=de\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tizian_029.jpg?uselang=de<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed engraving depicting a group of muscular, semi-nude men and women gathered around a table outdoors, feasting and drinking under a draped canopy. A servant brings a platter of food, while others play music, including a woman playing a string instrument in da gamba position. In the background, rain falls over a landscape with Noah\u2019s Ark resting on a hill, suggesting a biblical theme of indulgence before the Flood. The Latin inscription at the bottom reads \u201cSicut autem erat in diebus Noe,\u201d meaning \u201cAs it was in the days of Noah.\u201d\" width=\"2500\" height=\"1941\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8270\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73.jpg 2500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-300x233.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-1024x795.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-150x116.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-768x596.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-1536x1193.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-2048x1590.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-73-850x660.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2500px) 100vw, 2500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 73:<\/b> Jan Sadeler&#160;I after Dirck Barendsz, <em>Mankind before the Flood, <\/em>1581\u20135, coloured copperplate engraving, 34.7 x 44.7&#160;cm, The British Museum, London; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.britishmuseum.org\/collection\/object\/P_D-5-61\">https:\/\/www.britishmuseum.org\/collection\/object\/P_D-5-61<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance painting depicting five semi-nude women gathered in a pastoral setting, engaged in making music. One woman plays a string instrument resembling a viola da gamba, another performs on a small organ, while others hold sheet music, a flute or operate the bellows of the organ respectively. The figures are posed gracefully, with soft lighting emphasizing their bodies and drapery in warm tones of red, gold, and blue.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"660\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8271\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74.jpg 1000w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74-300x198.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74-150x99.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74-768x507.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74-850x561.jpg 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-74-742x490.jpg 742w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 74:<\/b> Tintoretto, <em>Music-Making Women<\/em>, after 1566, oil\/canvas, 142 x 214&#160;cm, Old Masters Picture Gallery, Dresden, 265; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.skd.museum\/programm\/alle-macht-der-imagination-tschechische-saison-in-dresden\/boehmische-spuren-in-der-gemaeldegalerie-alte-meister\/#c32896\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.skd.museum\/programm\/alle-macht-der-imagination-tschechische-saison-in-dresden\/boehmische-spuren-in-der-gemaeldegalerie-alte-meister\/#c32896<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The lid painting on Lodewijk Grouwels\u2019 double virginal (Fig.&#160;75) is probably part of its original decoration. It illustrates the Old Testament story of David\u2019s victory in the battle of the Israelites against the Philistines. During the triumphal entry into Jerusalem (with a rather urban setting hence depicted here), David carries Goliath\u2019s huge severed head beneath a canopy borne by two slim, elegant ladies; according to 1&#160;Samuel 18:6\u20137, he was received by \u2018women [who] came out of all cities of Israel, singing and dancing [\u2026] with tabrets, with joy, and with instruments of musick.\u2019 It is thus that even this painting for an instrument contains at least a secondary musical reference.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75.jpg\" alt=\"A richly decorated Renaissance harpsichord with intricate gold and black patterns on its case and two keyboards. The open lid reveals a painted scene depicting a procession: elegantly dressed figures, some on horseback and others on foot, approach a castle gate, while mountains and tents appear in the background. The Latin inscription \u201cSCIENTIA NON HABET INIMICUM NISI IGNORANTEM\u201d adorns the lower panel, meaning \u201cKnowledge has no enemy but the ignorant.\u201d\" width=\"1873\" height=\"1193\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8272\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75.jpg 1873w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75-300x191.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75-1024x652.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75-150x96.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75-768x489.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75-1536x978.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-75-850x541.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1873px) 100vw, 1873px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 75:<\/b> Lodewijk Grouwels, <em>Double Virginal<\/em>, 1600, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 89.4.1196; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/501767\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/501767<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Overall, 16th-century instruments do not exhibit the same variety of pictorial themes as do those from later times. In Italy, where the influence of rediscovered ancient buildings and artworks was omnipresent, the forms and content from ancient pagan mythology naturally predominated, while in the southern Netherlands, the emerging pleasure and garden culture as well as a certain profane cosmopolitanism were reflected in depictions of idealised segments of reality. Even so, the astonishing mobility of artists \u2013 and, more importantly, artistic innovations\u2019 widespread dissemination from both Italy and the Netherlands through woodcuts and copperplate engravings \u2013 contributed to the supra-regional exchange of more or less canonised pictorial themes and ornaments.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"8\">Soundboard and Rose<\/h4>\n<p>Very few original painted soundboards from the 16th century survive, and knowledge of 16th-century soundboard decorators and rose-makers is also quite scant. A number of more extensive studies exist concerning later periods.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn96\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref96\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>96<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At least in the 17<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">th<\/span> century, each Flemish instrument maker worked mainly with one particular painter for the soundboard and the entire decoration, resulting in a personal style and the recognisability of their instruments.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn97\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref97\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>97<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The maker\u2019s signature then included the decorator\u2019s services. This can be presumed to have already been the case with the instruments by Jost Karest, who employed his brother Goosen Karest as a painter in 1538 under an exclusive contract.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn98\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref98\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>98<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Apart from their acoustic function, soundboards and roses are components that allow the transformation of decoration and its interpretation to be observed with particular ease. As is well known, 16th-century Italian cypress soundboards featured surfaces of a natural appearance amidst which elaborate roses, sometimes made of precious materials, worked their effect. An anonymous harpsichord, c.1540, at the Museum f\u00fcr Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg (Figs.&#160;76\u20137) displays a multi-dimensional rose typical of this type, constructed from a circle and a star, which is set into the soundboard in three tiers and whose ornamental band sits upon it in the manner of a \u2018lace collar\u2019.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance harpsichord, viewed from above, with a warm wooden finish. The soundboard is plain except for a decorative circular rosette featuring an intricate star-shaped design. The keyboard on the right side has alternating black and white keys, with colored markers above each note.\" width=\"2003\" height=\"787\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8310\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76.jpg 2003w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76-300x118.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76-1024x402.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76-150x59.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76-768x302.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76-1536x604.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-76-850x334.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2003px) 100vw, 2003px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 76:<\/b> Anon., <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, c.&#160;1540, Museum f\u00fcr Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, 2000.501, in: Andreas Beurmann, <em>Historische Tasteninstrumente <\/em>(Munich, 2000), p.&#160;xx.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate wooden rose from a Renaissance harpsichord, intricately carved with interlaced geometric and floral motifs. The circular design features a six-pointed star at its center surrounded by delicate latticework and concentric decorative rings, each adorned with small, repeating patterns. The craftsmanship showcases meticulous detail and symmetry\" width=\"1526\" height=\"1486\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8311\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77.jpg 1526w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77-300x292.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77-1024x997.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77-150x146.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77-768x748.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-77-850x828.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1526px) 100vw, 1526px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><span class=\"Fett\">Fig.&#160;77<\/span>: Anon., <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, rose, c.&#160;1540, Museum f\u00fcr Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, 2000.501, in: Andreas Beurmann, <em>Historische Tasteninstrumente <\/em>(Munich, 2000), p.&#160;xx.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Italian cypress soundboards are said to have a wonderful enduring fragrance. In a baroque retelling of an ancient idea, a curious parallel is drawn between scent and sound:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Deutsch\" lang=\"de-DE\" xml:lang=\"de-DE\">Epicurus meynte, da\u00df aus den C\u00f6rpern, die einen Klang erregten, gewisse C\u00f6rperlein giengen, welche in unsern Ohren den Schall verursachten, wie es sonst bey den C\u00f6rpern geschicht, die einen Geruch von sich geben.<\/span><span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn99\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref99\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>99<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018Epicurus was of the opinion that sound-producing bodies emitted certain little corpuscles that caused the sound in our ears, as also happens with bodies that produce a smell.\u2019)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>In any case, the notion of scent seems to have played an important role in the design of soundboards. In the southern Netherlands from the middle of the 16th century, for example, soundboards \u2013 which, there, were mostly made of spruce \u2013 were painted with \u2018fragrant\u2019 scattered flowers, fruits, and small animals. A double virginal by Hans Ruckers from 1581 (Fig.&#160;78) shows clearly how this approach differed from the Italian practice.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Overhead view of a Renaissance virginal, a rectangular keyboard instrument with a wooden case decorated with floral motifs. The soundboard features painted flowers and leaves in muted tones of red, green, and white, along with a circular, intricately carved soundhole rose accented by a red ring. The keyboard has alternating white and black keys, and the instrument\u2019s structure includes ornate gold-trimmed borders.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1256\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8312\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-300x147.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-1024x502.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-150x74.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-768x377.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-1536x754.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-2048x1005.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-850x417.jpg 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-78-496x244.jpg 496w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 78:<\/b> Hans Ruckers, <em>Double Virginal<\/em>, 1581, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 29.90; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503676\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503676<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Due to clear formal and iconographic correspondence with Marian and occasionally Christological pictorial elements in other works of art, I propose that soundboard and rose designs be interpreted as allegories of the \u2018hortus conclusus\u2019.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn100\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref100\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>100<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> This pictorial motif of an enclosed garden refers to the Song of Solomon (especially 4:12) in the Old Testament. It is depicted in many famous paintings, always in connection with certain plant elements such as aquilegia, lilies, roses, strawberry blossoms, etc. \u2013 which one also finds on soundboards. Hans Ruckers\u2019 virginal from 1583 (Fig.&#160;79) shows a strawberry plant in a typically Marian manner, bearing fruit and blossoms simultaneously. The sides of instrument cases form the walled enclosures characteristic of the \u2018enclosed garden\u2019 \u2013 and in one anonymous Italian virginal from the 17th century at the Musical Instrument Museum in Brussels,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn101\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref101\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>101<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the sides are even designed to resemble a fence entwined with greenery (Fig.&#160;80).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of the soundboard of a Renaissance virginal dated 1583, decorated with painted flowers and fruits on a warm wooden surface. In the center is a circular gilt soundhole rose bordered by a red ring with small white accents, featuring a carved winged figure in relief. The surrounding area shows delicate stringing, metal tuning pins, and part of the keyboard below, with intricate craftsmanship highlighting the historical instrument\u2019s ornate design.\" width=\"2500\" height=\"1633\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8273\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79.jpg 2500w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-300x196.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-1024x669.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-150x98.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-768x502.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-1536x1003.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-2048x1338.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-79-850x555.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2500px) 100vw, 2500px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 79:<\/b> Hans Ruckers, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1583, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique Paris, E.986.1.2; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mimo-international.com\/media\/CM\/IMAGE\/CMIM000023490.jpg?_ga=2.221891676.552757129.1659460502-146864436.1616342545\">https:\/\/mimo-international.com\/media\/CM\/IMAGE\/CMIM000023490.jpg?_ga=2.221891676.552757129.1659460502-146864436.1616342545<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80.png\" alt=\"Two views of an elaborately carved Renaissance virginal, a keyboard instrument with richly detailed wooden panels featuring repeating leaf and vine motifs. The main image shows the full instrument, trapezoidal in shape, with a small keyboard and intricate fretwork along the soundboard. The inset below provides a closer look at the ornate carving and delicate latticework around the edge.\" width=\"1654\" height=\"895\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8313\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80.png 1654w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80-300x162.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80-1024x554.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80-150x81.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80-768x416.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80-1536x831.png 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-80-850x460.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1654px) 100vw, 1654px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 80:<\/b> Anon., <em>Virginal<\/em>, 17th century, Musical Instrument Museum, Brussels, 1579, in: Heidelinde Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente als kunsthistorische Objekte<\/em> (Graz\/Vienna, 2018), 190.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The emergence of soundboard painting and instrument mottos in the southern Netherlands at about the same time points to a common background: the pervasion of a certain religious mindset during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The very fact that soundboard decoration is only barely visible from musicians\u2019 and audience\u2019s ordinary positions, achieving its overall effect only when seen from above, suggests that in the context of the \u2018hortus conclusus\u2019 this decoration originally may have been intended \u2018Soli Deo Gloria\u2019.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn102\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref102\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>102<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Moreover, Sheridan Germann mentions symbolism as an essential component of Flemish soundboard painting.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn103\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref103\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>103<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Since the blossom and its fragrance are only ephemeral, painted flowers offer themselves as a symbol of transience in conjunction with the sound rising from the soundboard. The allegory of the enclosed garden is often complemented by caterpillars, moths, and butterflies as symbols of metamorphosis and as a Christological image of death and resurrection. The birds sometimes seen sitting on branches \u2013 of species such as kingfisher, goldfinch, and hoopoe \u2013 symbolise the human soul, pointing to the understanding of the soundboard as the soul of the instrument.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn104\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref104\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>104<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>It should be added that in the southern Netherlands during the second half of the 16th century, in parallel with the increased scientific interest in botany and the intensive cultivation of ornamental plants, Antwerp arose as a centre of flower painting. Jan Brueghel the Elder was even famously given the epithet \u2018Flower Brueghel\u2019. The exotic and precious luxury flowers found on early 17th-century soundboards, especially the tulip, were probably employed more in the interest of representation without any religious connotation. During the 16th century, however, almost all of the flowers displayed on soundboards were simple wild forms.<\/p>\n<p>The visual aesthetics of soundboard rose designs underwent rapid evolution during the 16th century, and although this evolution was not linear, a common thread does run through the many individual creations. I believe that the soundboard rose (German: <em>Rosette,<\/em> Italian: <em>rosetta<\/em>) originally served as a Marian symbol. As early as the 5th century, poets associated the rose mentioned in Song of Songs 2:2 with the Virgin Mary. In the traditions of the medieval cult of Mary, the rose became an important iconographic motif in sacred art \u2013 institutionalised, for example, by the Feast of the Rosary, introduced by Pope Pius V in 1572, and by the <em>Laurentian Litany <\/em>approved by Pope Sixtus V in 1587 with its invocation of Mary as the mysterious \u2018<em>Rosa mystica<\/em>\u2019. This association between Mary, the horticultural rose, and the harpsichord rose is underlined by the interpretation of the soundboard as a \u2018hortus conclusus\u2019 in which Mary forms the \u2018rose\u2019 at the centre. The visual similarity between the soundboard rose and the type of rose seen particularly in Gothic cathedrals with \u2018Notre Dame\u2019 in their name likewise supports this interpretation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn105\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref105\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>105<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Compare, for example the rose of a harpsichord made by Dominicus Pisaurensis Venetus (Fig.&#160;81) and the rose window at the Cath\u00e9drale Notre-Dame d\u2019Amiens (Fig.&#160;82).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an intricately carved wooden soundhole rose on a keyboard instrument, featuring an elaborate symmetrical pattern of swirling vines and leaf-like forms. The delicate latticework is set into a smooth wooden soundboard.\" width=\"1692\" height=\"1601\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8314\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81.jpg 1692w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81-300x284.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81-1024x969.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81-150x142.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81-768x727.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81-1536x1453.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-81-850x804.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1692px) 100vw, 1692px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 81:<\/b> Dominicus Pisaurensis, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, rose, 1533, Grassi-Museum Leipzig, 67 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82.jpg\" alt=\"Black and white architectural drawing of a Gothic rose window design featuring an intricate radiating pattern of interwoven tracery resembling flowing leaves or vines. The circular composition is framed by concentric decorative borders with geometric and floral motifs, and a small shield emblem sits at the center. The background shows brick lines, indicating the window\u2019s placement within a stone wall.\" width=\"1490\" height=\"1489\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8315\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82.jpg 1490w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82-768x767.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-82-850x849.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1490px) 100vw, 1490px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figur 82:<\/b> Cath\u00e9drale Notre-Dame d\u2019Amiens, 13th century, from: Georg Streng, <em>Das Rosettenmotiv in der Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte <\/em>(Munich, 1918), 47.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Further evidence for this interpretation is the adoption of the motif of the \u2018Madonna in a wreath of flowers\u2019 for the rose designs at the beginning of the 17th century. Developed by Peter Paul Rubens, Henrik van Balen, and Jan Brueghel the Elder shortly after 1600, this type of picture was popular especially in Antwerp. A typical example is the <em>Madonna and Child in a Wreath of Flowers, <\/em>c.&#160;1618 (Fig.&#160;83), a collaboration between Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder. This motif was obviously taken up by Flemish instrument decorators: the initially simple wreath of leaves, which can be seen on the combination instrument by Hans Ruckers from 1594 (Fig.&#160;84), gradually developed into a lush wreath of roses and other flowers with Marian connotations until luxury flowers such as tulips were finally added, as on the harpsichord by Ioannes Ruckers from 1639 in the Victoria and Albert Museum London (Fig.&#160;85). Unlike in the panel paintings, however, the soundboards of early and later Ruckers instruments feature an angel playing the harp in the center of the floral wreath instead of the Madonna. There are probably several reasons for this, including the Ruckers family\u2019s desire to downplay their commitment to Catholicism at a time of religious upheaval.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn106\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref106\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>106<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Baroque painting depicting the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child, surrounded by a garland of colorful flowers and numerous cherubs. The Virgin is dressed in a red gown with a blue mantle, the child stands on a cushion. The cherubs, with rosy cheeks and delicate wings, hold and weave the floral wreath around the central figures.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"2243\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8316\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-300x263.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-1024x897.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-150x131.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-768x673.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-1536x1346.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-2048x1794.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-83-850x745.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 83:<\/b> Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder, <em>Madonna and Child in a Wreath of Flowers<\/em>, c.1618, oil\/wood, 185 x 209.8&#160;cm, Alte Pinakothek, Munich, 331; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sammlung.pinakothek.de\/de\/artwork\/QrLW9oV4NO\">https:\/\/www.sammlung.pinakothek.de\/de\/artwork\/QrLW9oV4NO<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of a harpsichord soundboard showing a small circular rose soundhole with an intricate golden lattice design. Surrounding it are painted floral and leaf motifs in soft green and red tones on a warm wooden surface. Fine strings cross the image diagonally.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1920\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8317\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-84-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 84:<\/b> Hans Ruckers, <em>Combination Instrument<\/em>, 1594, Kunst&#173;&#173;ge&#173;&#173;werbemu&#173;seum Berlin (K\u00f6penick), K&#160;6439 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of a harpsichord soundboard featuring a decorative gilded soundhole carved with a relief of an angel playing a harp. The surrounding wooden surface is richly painted with colorful floral motifs, including tulips, roses, and other blossoms in shades of red, yellow, and green.\" width=\"1875\" height=\"2500\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8318\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85.jpg 1875w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85-113x150.jpg 113w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-85-850x1133.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1875px) 100vw, 1875px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 85:<\/b> Ioannes Ruckers, <em>Harpsichord<\/em>, 1639, Victoria and Albert Museum, 1739\u20131869; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O169594\/harpsichord-ruckers-ioannes\/?carousel-image=2017JX0134\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O169594\/harpsichord-ruckers-&#173;ioannes\/?carousel-image=2017JX0134<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Tulip mania,<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn107\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref107\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>107<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the increasing interest in botany, and \u2013 not insignificantly \u2013 growing commercialization all contributed to changing conceptions of the rose. It was in the southern Netherlands that the rose design was first developed into a logo, a small advertising space for the instrument maker. While Italian roses had been characterised by elaborate geometric or phytomorphic designs in sometimes precious materials, the design was now rendered two-dimensionally by way of illusionistic painting. An Italian virginal in the Beurmann Collection at the Museum f\u00fcr Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg (Fig.&#160;86) still exhibits a filigree three-dimensional design fashioned from cypress and ebony as well as parchment with an ornamental wreath of late Gothic motifs. On the clavichord of Dominicus Pisaurensis (Fig.&#160;87), the carved ornament in the late-gothic flamboyant style is backed with red fabric and surrounded by pearls. On Hans Ruckers\u2019 double virginal from 1581 (Fig.&#160;88), such pearls along with the typical Italian \u2018lace wreath\u2019 are only painted on the soundboard; they surround a filigree but simple geometric rose centre. And on Hans Ruckers\u2019 virginal from 1583 (Fig.&#160;89), the rose now contains a metal centre comprising an angel with a harp between the initials of the builder, HR.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an intricately carved wooden rose soundhole on a virginal. The delicate lattice design features interwoven floral and geometric patterns forming concentric circular layers. The strings of the instrument run vertically across the ornate rosette, which is set into a finely grained wooden soundboard.\" width=\"1675\" height=\"1698\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8319\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86.jpg 1675w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86-296x300.jpg 296w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86-1010x1024.jpg 1010w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86-148x150.jpg 148w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86-768x779.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86-1515x1536.jpg 1515w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-86-850x862.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1675px) 100vw, 1675px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 86:<\/b> Anon., <em>Virginal<\/em>, c.&#160;1580, Beurmann Collection, Museum f\u00fcr Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, 2000.504 (Photo: H.&#160;Pollerus).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate carved wooden rose soundhole on a clavichord. The circular rosette features an intricate interlaced floral and vine motif, set against a red fabric background visible through the openwork design. The wood around the rose is dark and finely finished, with small brass pins securing the decorative panel.\" width=\"1111\" height=\"793\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8274\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87.jpg 1111w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87-300x214.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87-1024x731.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87-150x107.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87-768x548.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87-104x74.jpg 104w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-87-850x607.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1111px) 100vw, 1111px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 87:<\/b> Dominicus Pisaurensis, <em>Clavichord<\/em>, 16th century, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique, Paris, E.1608\/C.1485; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr\/collectionsdumusee\/doc\/MUSEE\/0157969\/clavicorde\">https:\/\/collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr\/collectionsdumusee\/doc\/MUSEE\/0157969\/clavicorde<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-88.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of a decorative soundhole rose on a Renaissance virginal. The intricate circular carving features a gilded floral and geometric pattern, surrounded by a gold and red painted border with small black-and-white ornamental dots. Delicate blue-gray foliage motifs and thin string lines frame the rosette on the wooden soundboard.\" width=\"683\" height=\"651\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8275\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-88.jpg 683w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-88-300x286.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-88-150x143.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 88:<\/b> Hans Ruckers, <em>Double Virginal<\/em>, 1581, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 29.90; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503676\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503676<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of an ornate virginal soundhole featuring layered gilded decorations. The outer ring is painted red with alternating black and white circular motifs, framing a gold relief carving that includes an angel and other intricate details. At the center is a smaller inset image showing a decorative rose with a similar design\u2014gold filigree surrounded by a red border and delicate blue-gray foliage patterns\u2014creating a visual echo of the larger soundhole motif.\" width=\"1394\" height=\"1041\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-8320\" style=\"width:50%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89.jpg 1394w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89-300x224.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89-1024x765.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89-150x112.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89-768x574.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-89-850x635.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1394px) 100vw, 1394px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 89:<\/b> Hans Ruckers, <em>Virginal<\/em>, 1583, Mus\u00e9e de la Musique, Paris, E.986.1.2; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr\/collectionsdumusee\/doc\/MUSEE\/0130260\/virginale-a-la-quinte\">https:\/\/collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr\/collectionsdumusee\/doc\/MUSEE\/0130260\/virginale-a-la-quinte<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>This conceptual change as well as the shift of the rose\u2019s visual function to that of a company logo went hand in hand with the development of small workshops into large manufactories towards the end of the century. The initials of the respective instrument manufacturer, in the 17th century also the full name, combined with a standardised rose centre \u2013 usually a sacred figure playing music \u2013 to form a representative solution tailored to the producers. Roses thus came to embody commercial expedients with an acoustic function in which the original spiritual meaning did, however, still resonate metaphorically.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"9\">Conclusion<\/h4>\n<p>One could summarise that the visual design of keyboard instruments during the 16th century oscillated between representational needs, projections of worldviews and educational standards, enthusiasm for fashionable decoration, and mundane expediency. The expressive means that were employed with both cognitive and sensory impacts in mind were diverse and quite naturally dependent on what was artistically and financially feasible. Commissioners, painters, and artisans joined musicians and the audience at a locus situated between the reception of formal, stylistic, and intellectual topoi from antiquity and the Middle Ages and the simultaneous \u2018modernisation\u2019 of outlooks and expression. Though symbolic and metaphorical portrayals of religious and mythological content did persist in lid paintings and other decorative elements, they were increasingly overlayed by secularisation and commercialisation and\/or intended more and more \u2018poetically\u2019. Decorative elements gradually lost their function as vehicles of spiritual meaning but continued \u2013 as they still do today in innumerable copies and replicas \u2013 to convey aesthetic and cultural-historical values as \u2018forms of dignity and luxury\u2019. A precious \u2018piece of resonant furniture\u2019 that appealed to contemporary tastes quite naturally enhanced the prestige of its owner. But through an instrument\u2019s appearance, its magnificent aesthetic design, one also accorded the instrument itself a suitable degree of \u2018esteem\u2019 and thereby dignified it as a medium of the <em>donum dei <\/em>that was music. In the theory of art, at least, the decorated instrument was by no means understood merely as a \u2018sonorous substrate\u2019. It was much rather music, as an instrument\u2019s primary purpose, that wielded the most influence over its aesthetic design \u2013 over its paintings and mottos, above all, but also over its ornamentation.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: right\">(Translation of the article and, unless otherwise stated, quotations from the original sources: Chris Roth)<\/p>\n<h4>Endnotes<\/h4>\n<hr class=\"HorizontalRule-1\" \/>\n<ol>\n<li id=\"fn1\">\n<p>The secondary literature on instrument making is extensive, but decoration is often only addressed as an aside. Indispensable for its record of surviving instruments, with each entry containing a brief reference to decoration, is Donald H. Boalch, <em>Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord 1440\u20131840<\/em>, 3rd ed., ed. by Charles Mould (Oxford, 1995). Alongside numerous studies on individual objects and various fantastic collection catalogues, the following works are among the fundamental literature here: Christoph Rueger, <em>Musikinstrument und Dekor. Kostbarkeiten europ\u00e4ischer Kulturgeschichte<\/em> (Leipzig, 1982); Grant O\u2019Brien, <em>Ruckers: A Harpsichord and Virginal Building Tradition<\/em> (Cambridge, 1990); Thomas Aurelius Belz, <em>Das Instrument der Dame. Bemalte Kielklaviere aus drei Jahrhunderten<\/em> (Bamberg, 1998); Sheridan Germann, <em>Harpsichord Decoration: A Conspectus<\/em>, The Historical Harpsichord 4 (Hillsdale, 2002); Franca Falletti, Renato Meucci and Gabriele Rossi-Rognoni (eds.), <em>Marvels of Sound and Beauty: Italian Baroque Musical Instruments<\/em> (Florence, 2007). Recent studies such as the following offer a multidimensional approach to organology, which views musical instruments not only as sound-producing objects, but also as artifacts with specific social and cultural significance and functions: Flora Dennis, \u2018Musical Sound and Material Culture\u2018, in: <em>The Routledge Handbook of Material Culture in Early Modern Europe, <\/em>ed. Catherine Richardson, Tara Hamling and David Gaimster (London\/New York, 2017), 371\u201382; Emanuela Vai, \u2018Fantastic Finials. The Materiality, Decoration and Display of Renaissance Musical Instruments\u2019, in: <em>Music and Visual Culture in Renaissance Italy<\/em>, ed. Chriscinda Henry and Tim Shephard (New York, 2023), 295\u2013322. An extensive bibliography can be found in the printed version of my dissertation: Heidelinde Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente als kunsthistorische Objekte. Cembalo, Clavichord, Spinett, Virginal<\/em> (Graz\/Vienna, 2018).<a href=\"#fnref1\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn2\">\n<p><em>The Sense of Hearing<\/em>,1617\/18, Prado, Madrid.<a href=\"#fnref2\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn3\">\n<p><em>Woman at the Virginal<\/em>,c.&#160;1637, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.<a href=\"#fnref3\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn4\">\n<p><em>The Young Scholar and his Wife<\/em>, 1640, Gem\u00e4ldegalerie Alte Meister, Kassel.<a href=\"#fnref4\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn5\">\n<p><em>Young Woman Playing the Harpsichord<\/em>, 1659, National Gallery, London.<a href=\"#fnref5\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn6\">\n<p><em>The Concert<\/em>,1665\/66, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston (until 1990); whereabouts currently unknown.<a href=\"#fnref6\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn7\">\n<p><em>A Man and a Woman at the Virginal<\/em>,c.&#160;1665, National Gallery, London.<a href=\"#fnref7\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn8\">\n<p>For example, Sofonisba Anguissola, <em>Self-Portrait at the Spinet<\/em> (c.&#160;1556, Museo di Capodimonte, Naples). A contemporary description of the <em>studiolo<\/em> of the Roman courtesan Imperia Cognati also mentions the table covered in green velvet, on which musical instruments and sheet music lie. Cf. Vai\u201a \u201aFantastic Finials\u2018 (see n.&#160;1), 312; Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 375.<a href=\"#fnref8\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn9\">\n<p>Worcester Art Museum, inv.&#160;no. 1920.88. &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jan_van_Hemessen_-_Young_Woman_Playing_a_Clavichord.jpg\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jan_van_Hemessen_-_Young_Woman_Playing_a_Clavichord.jpg<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;August 2025).<a href=\"#fnref9\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn10\">\n<p>For details on the development of the Ruckers paper prints, see Grant O\u2019Brien, <em>Ruckers<\/em> (see n.&#160;1).<a href=\"#fnref10\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn11\">\n<p>Reginald Howard Wilenski, <em>Flemish Painters 1430\u20131830<\/em>, 2&#160;vols. (London, 1960), i, 143.<a href=\"#fnref11\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn12\">\n<p>Now at the Musical Instrument Museum in Brussels, inv.&#160;no. 2935. Cf. Pollerus, <em>Tasten&#173;instrumente<\/em>, (see n.&#160;1), 201.<a href=\"#fnref12\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn13\">\n<p>A reversed exemplar of this drawing is held by the Royal Collection Trust, RCIN 990220.<a href=\"#fnref13\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn14\">\n<p>Richard Schaal, \u2018Die Musikinstrumenten-Sammlung von Raimund Fugger d. J.\u2019, in: <em>AfMw <\/em>21 (1964), 212\u201316.<a href=\"#fnref14\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn15\">\n<p>Author\u2019s translation. A different translation can be found in Douglas Alton Smith, \u2018The Musical Instrument Inventory of Raymund Fugger\u2019, in: <em>GSJ<\/em> 33 (1980), 36\u201344, at 40.<a href=\"#fnref15\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn16\">\n<p>Heinrich Zimerman (ed.), \u2018Urkunden, Acten und Regesten aus dem Archiv des k.&#160;k. Ministeriums des Inneren (Fortsetzung)\u2019, in: <em>Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des Allerh\u00f6chsten Kaiserhauses<\/em> 7 (1888), xvii\u2013lxxxiv, at xxi, xxxi.<a href=\"#fnref16\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn17\">\n<p>Martin McLeish, \u2018An Inventory of Musical Instruments at the Royal Palace, Madrid, in 1602\u2019, in: <em>GSJ<\/em> 21 (1968), 108\u201328, at 121.<a href=\"#fnref17\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn18\">\n<p>Johann Mattheson, <em>Der vollkommene Capellmeister <\/em>(Hamburg: Christian Herold, 1739), Preface, 20.<a href=\"#fnref18\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn19\">\n<p>Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo, <em>Trattato dell\u2019arte della pittura, scultura et archittetura <\/em>(Milan: Paolo Gottardo Pontio, 1584), 346; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb00104031\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb00104031<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref19\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn20\">\n<p>Ibid.<a href=\"#fnref20\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn21\">\n<p>The Council of Trent (1545\u201363) and Counter-Reformation policies fundamentally did not allow pagan, classical, or profane elements in religious painting. The depiction of mythological themes was tolerated as \u2018poetic\u2019 painting on a case-by-case basis. Anthony Blunt, <em>Kunsttheorie in Italien 1450\u20131600 <\/em>(Munich, 1984), 79.<a href=\"#fnref21\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn22\">\n<p>For an identification of all the individuals, see Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 204\u20135.<a href=\"#fnref22\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn23\">\n<p>Lomazzo, <em>Trattato<\/em> (see n.&#160;19), 347. Lomazzo himself painted a fresco depicting the <em>Nine Choirs of Angels <\/em>in theChurch of San Marco in Milan in 1570. On Lomazzo, see also: Marilena Cassimatis, <em>Zur Kunsttheorie des Malers Giovanni-Paolo Lomazzo (1538\u20131600) <\/em>(Frankfurt a.M., 1985).<a href=\"#fnref23\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn24\">\n<p>Giovanni Andrea Gilio da Fabriano, <em>Due dialogi<\/em> (Camerino: Antonio Gioioso, 1564), quoted in Blunt, <em>Kunsttheorie<\/em> (see n.&#160;21), 79. Gilio was a priest and art theorist of the Counter-Reformation.<a href=\"#fnref24\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn25\">\n<p>Thijs Weststeijn, \u2018Decorum\u2019, in: <em>Grundbegriffe der Kunstwissenschaft<\/em>, ed. Stefan Jordan and J\u00fcrgen M\u00fcller (Ditzingen, 2018), 88\u201391.<a href=\"#fnref25\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn26\">\n<p>Leopoldo Franciolini (1844\u20131920) was an Italian antiques dealer specialising in old keyboard instruments who ran a workshop and pursued a large-scale trade in fake instruments in Florence. He \u2018modified\u2019 hundreds of instruments, mainly with assembled decorative elements, in order to fraudulently obtain higher prices. Such instruments are now exhibited in museum collections with corresponding explanations. On Franciolini, see e.g. Edward M. Ripin, <em>The Instrument Catalogs of Leopoldo Franciolini<\/em>, Music indexes and bibliographies 9 (Hackensack, N.J., 1974); Edward L. Kottick, <em>A History of the Harpsichord <\/em>(Bloomington, 2003), 403\u20135; Gunther Joppig, \u2018Ein \u201cechter\u201d Franciolini\u2019, in: <em>Antiquit\u00e4ten-Zeitung <\/em>21 (1999), 814\u201315.<a href=\"#fnref26\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn27\">\n<p>Boalch, <em>Makers<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 20, 250.<a href=\"#fnref27\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn28\">\n<p>A description of this painting can be found at &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/possibly-by-girolamo-romanino-pegasus-and-the-muses\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.nationalgallery.org.uk\/paintings\/possibly-by-girolamo-romanino-pegasus-and-the-muses<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 15&#160;Sept. 2024).<a href=\"#fnref28\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn29\">\n<p>In the older literature, both parts as well as all prior studies are attributed to Annibale Carracci. In recent years, co-authorship by his brother Agostino (and perhaps even by his cousin Ludovico) is assumed, though the amount of material concerned here is a topic of discussion. Daniele Benati et al. (eds.), <em>The Drawings of Annibale Carracci<\/em> [Catalogue of an exhibition held at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 26&#160;Sept. 1999 \u2013 9&#160;January 2000] (Washington, 1999); Ann Sutherland Harris, \u2018Review: The Drawings of Annibale Carracci\u2019, in: <em>Master Drawings<\/em> 43 (2005), 512\u201326; Clovis Withfield, \u2018Agostino risarcito parte II. Nuovi spunti sul vero ruolo del maggiore dei fratelli Carracci\u2019, in: <em>About Art Online<\/em> (2018), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.aboutartonline.com\/agostino-risarcito-parte-2-nuovi-spunti-sul-vero-ruolo-del-maggiore-dei-fratelli-carracci-with-english-text\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.aboutartonline.com\/agostino-risarcito-parte-2-nuovi-spunti-sul-vero-ruolo-del-maggiore-dei-fratelli-carracci-with-english-text\/<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 15&#160;Sept. 2024).<a href=\"#fnref29\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn30\">\n<p>Giovanni Pietro Bellori, <em>Nota delli musei, librerie, gallerie et ornamenti di statue e pitture ne\u2019 palazzo, nelle case e ne\u2019 giardini di Roma <\/em>(Rome: Deversin and Cesaretti, 1664), 29; &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb11098347\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb11098347<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref30\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn31\">\n<p>For a very extensive discussion of its renovation and reattribution, see: Thomas Fusenig and Ulrike Villwock, \u2018Hieronymus Franckens \u201cVenezianischer Ball\u201d in Aachen. Eine neue Datierung und ihre Folgen\u2019, in: <em>Wallraf-Richartz-Jahrbuch<\/em> 61 (2000), 145\u201376. Cf. also Thomas Fusenig and Christine Vogt (eds.), <em>Suermondt-Ludwig-Museum Aachen. Bestandskatalog der Gem\u00e4ldegalerie Niederlande von 1550 bis 1800<\/em> (Aachen\/Munich, 2006), 124\u20136.<a href=\"#fnref31\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn32\">\n<p>Jana Stolzenberger, \u2018H\u00f6\ufb01sches Sammeln und internationale Tendenzen der Kunst um 1600\u2019, in: <em>Renaissance \u2013 Barock \u2013 Aufkl\u00e4rung. Kunst und Kultur vom 16. bis zum 18.&#160;Jahrhundert<\/em>, ed. Daniel Hess and Dagmar Hirschfelder, Die Schausammlungen des Germanischen Nationalmuseums 3 (Nuremberg, 2010), 271\u201384, at 272\u20133.<a href=\"#fnref32\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn33\">\n<p>Sally Metzler, <em>Bartholomeus Spranger. Splendor and Eroticism in Imperial Prague. The Complete Works<\/em> [Catalogue of an exhibition at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 4&#160;Nov. 2014 \u2013 1&#160;Feb. 2015] (New York, 2014), 94\u20135.<a href=\"#fnref33\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn34\">\n<p>See the informations on the Website of Germanisches Nationalmuseum, &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/Gm1100\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/objektkatalog.gnm.de\/objekt\/Gm1100<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 15&#160;Sept. 2024).<a href=\"#fnref34\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn35\">\n<p>Another possible \u2018candidate\u2019 for rediscovery as an instrument lid is the painting on wood <em>Apollo and the Muses<\/em>, atrributed to Benvenuto di Giovanni di Meo del Guasta (1436\u20131518), Detroit Institute of Arts, 31,8 x 106,7&#160;cm, inv.&#160;no.&#160;40.128.<a href=\"#fnref35\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn36\">\n<p>Sabba da Castiglione, <em>Ricordi <\/em>(Venice: Paolo Gherardi, 1554), Ricordo cix, fol.&#160;51<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>; &lt;<span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/books.google.it\/books?id=lZBZyV9nZfMC&amp;hl=de&amp;pg=PA1 &#8211; v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<\/span>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref36\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn37\">\n<p>A Sebastiano da Verona worked for Cardinal Ippolito I d\u2019Este as a <em>\u2018M.o de instromenti\u2019 <\/em>from 1508 to 1511. Lewis Lockwood, \u2018Adrian Willaert and Cardinal Ippolito&#160;I d\u2019Este: New Light on Willaert\u2019s Early Career in Italy, 1515\u201321\u2019, in: <em>EMH<\/em> 5 (1985), 85\u2013112, at 112.<a href=\"#fnref37\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn38\">\n<p>Boalch, <em>Makers <\/em>(see n.&#160;1), 76; William F. Prizer, \u2018Isabella d\u2019Este and Lorenzo da Pavia, \u201cMaster Instrument-Maker\u201d\u2019, in: <em>EMH<\/em> 2 (1982), 87\u2013118 and 120\u20137, esp. at 89.<a href=\"#fnref38\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn39\">\n<p>Erik Forssman, <em>Column and Ornament <\/em>(Cologne, 1956), 13.<a href=\"#fnref39\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn40\">\n<p>Possibly plumwood, see: Johann Heinrich Zedler, <em>Universal-Lexicon<\/em>,Supplement 1 (Leipzig\/Halle: J.H. Zedler, 1751), entry \u2018Almuggim-Holz\u2019, col.&#160;1133, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/index.html?c=blaettern&amp;seitenzahl=578&amp;bandnummer=s1&amp;view=100&amp;l=de\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/index.html?c=blaettern&amp;seitenzahl=578&amp;bandnummer=s1&amp;view=100&amp;l=de<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref40\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn41\">\n<p>1&#160;Kings, 10:11.<a href=\"#fnref41\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn42\">\n<p>Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), <em>Metamorphosen<\/em>,ed. Erich R\u00f6sch (Munich, 1952), XI 168, 405. Ovid, <em>Metamophoses<\/em>, trans. David Raeburn (London, 2004), XI 167.<a href=\"#fnref42\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn43\">\n<p>Marin Mersenne, <em>Harmonie universelle<\/em>, 2 vols.(Paris: Sebastien Cramoisy and Pierre Ballard, 1636\u201337), ii, Livre cinquiesme des instrumens \u00e0 vent, 241, discusses flutes, his statement, however, also applies to other kinds of instruments: \u2018[\u2026] mais on choisit ordinairement du bois d\u2019une belle couleur, &amp; qui re\u00e7oit un beau poly, afin que la beaut\u00e9 accompagne la bont\u00e9 de l\u2019instrument, &amp; que les yeux soient en quelque fa\u00e7on participans du plaisir de l\u2019oreille\u2019 (\u2018but usually wood of a beautiful colour is chosen, which can be polished well, so that the beauty accompanies the instrument\u2019s quality &amp; the eyes are in some way involved in the pleasure of the ear\u2019); &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k15111009\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k15111009<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref43\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn44\">\n<p>Translation from &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503043\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/503043<\/span><\/a><span class=\"Hyperlink\">&gt;<\/span> (accessed on 1&#160;February 2022).<a href=\"#fnref44\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn45\">\n<p>Cf. John Henry van der Meer et al., <em>Kielklaviere, Cembali, Spinette, Virginale. Bestandskatalog des Staatlichen Instituts f\u00fcr Musikforschung, Preu\u00dfischer Kulturbesitz<\/em> (Berlin, 1991), 195\u20139.<a href=\"#fnref45\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn46\">\n<p>On the characteristics of this style, cf. Forssman, <em>Column and Ornament<\/em> (see n.&#160;39), 116\u201317. On the change in meaning of ornamentation in the Renaissance in general cf. Clare Lapraik Guest, <em>The Understanding of Ornament in the Italian Renaissance <\/em>(Leiden, 2016).<a href=\"#fnref46\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn47\">\n<p>See also the Cabinet Organ, Ausgburg, c.&#160;1600, Victoria and Albert Museum, 216:1,2-1879, or the Cabinet with Room Organ, Tirol, 1590\u20131600, Landesmuseum W\u00fcrttemberg, G29,143, or the Virginal in a Cabinet, Tirol or Augsburg, 1580\/90, Bayerisches Nationalmuseum Munich, R 1069, and also the southern German cabinet from the second half of the 16th century held at the Graz Museum, inv.&#160;no. 9148-1.<a href=\"#fnref47\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn48\">\n<p>Extensive description of the object with in part contradictory statements: &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58892\/the-glass-virginal-virginal-unknown\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/collections.vam.ac.uk\/item\/O58892\/the-glass-virginal-virginal-unknown\/<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref48\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn49\">\n<p>Thomas Aquinas, <em>Summa theologica <\/em>1, 91, 3, quoted in Rosario Assunto, <em>Die Theorie des Sch\u00f6nen im Mittelalter <\/em>(Cologne, 1982), 231.<a href=\"#fnref49\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn50\">\n<p>Walther Hermann Ryff (Gualtherus Rivius), <em>Der furnembsten, notwendigsten, der gantzen Architectur angeh\u00f6rigen Mathematischen und Mechanischen k\u00fcnst eygentlicher Bericht <\/em>(Nuremberg: Johann Petreius, 1547) (VD16 R&#160;4001), das dritt buch der newen Perspectiva, fol.&#160;i<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">v<\/span>, &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/data.onb.ac.at\/rep\/108DD702\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/data.onb.ac.at\/rep\/108DD702<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref50\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn51\">\n<p>For details on the depicted content, cf. Thomas Aurelius Belz, \u2018Gartendarstellungen auf fl\u00e4mischen Kielinstrumenten\u2019, in: <em>G\u00e4rten und H\u00f6fe der Rubenszeit<\/em>, ed. Ursula H\u00e4rting (Munich, 2000), 135\u201342.<a href=\"#fnref51\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn52\">\n<p>Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), esp. 210\u201322.<a href=\"#fnref52\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn53\">\n<p>Stewart Pollens, \u2018Flemish Harpsichords and Virginals in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: An Analysis of Early Alterations and Restorations\u2019, in: <em>Metropolitan Museums Journal <\/em>32 (1997), 85\u2013110, at 87.<a href=\"#fnref53\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn54\">\n<p>Laurence Libin, \u2018Remarks on the 1581 Hans Ruckers Virginal at the Metropolitan Museum of Art\u2019, in: <em>Hans Ruckers (+1598): Founder of a Harpsichord Workshop of Universal Importance in Antwerp<\/em>, ed. Jeannine Lambrechts-Douillez (Peer, 1998), 77\u201384.<a href=\"#fnref54\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn55\">\n<p>Moritz Kelber, \u2018Double Virginals\u2019, in: <em>The Museum of Renaissance Music: A History in 100 Exhibits<\/em>, ed. Vincenzo Borghetti and Tim Shephard (Turnhout, 2023), 222\u20135, at 225.<a href=\"#fnref55\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn56\">\n<p>Cf. for example Florence Ge\u0301treau, \u2018Vin et musique dans les jardins de plaisir: un the\u0300me pour les couvercles de virginales et clavecins anversois et allemands (1570\u20131650)\u2019, in: <em>Musique \u2013 images \u2013 instruments<\/em> 19 (2023), 14\u201316.<a href=\"#fnref56\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn57\">\n<p>1&#160;Sam 18:8\u201316.<a href=\"#fnref57\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn58\">\n<p>Gregor von Rezzori, <em>Mir auf der Spur <\/em>(Munich, 1999), 13.<a href=\"#fnref58\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn59\">\n<p>For details, see: Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 233\u20134.<a href=\"#fnref59\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn60\">\n<p>Quotation from G\u00fcnter Bandmann, \u2018Ikonologie des Ornaments und der Dekoration\u2019, in: <em>Jahrbuch f\u00fcr \u00c4sthetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft <\/em>4 (1958\/1959), 232\u201358, at 247.<a href=\"#fnref60\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn61\">\n<p>Thomas McGeary, \u2018Harpsichord Mottoes\u2019, in: <em>JAMIS<\/em> 7 (1981), 5\u201335.<a href=\"#fnref61\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn62\">\n<p>Virginal by Hans Ruckers, 1610, H\u00e4ndel-Haus, Halle an der Saale \u2013 Virginal by Ioannes Ruckers, 1636, Harvard University, Cambridge. Cf. Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 75.<a href=\"#fnref62\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn63\">\n<p>See ibid., 66\u2013105, which builds upon McGeary, \u2018Harpsichord Mottoes\u2019 (see n.&#160;61).<a href=\"#fnref63\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn64\">\n<p>See for example Pieter Brueghel the Elder\u2019s famous painting <em>Netherlandish Proverbs<\/em>, 1559, Staatliche Museen Berlin.<a href=\"#fnref64\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn65\">\n<p>Julius Bernhard von Rohr, <em>Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissenschaft der Privat-Personen <\/em>(Berlin, 1728), repr. ed. Gotthardt Fr\u00fchsorge (Weinheim, 1990), 518\u201319.<a href=\"#fnref65\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn66\">\n<p>Veronika Gutmann, <em>Das Virginal des Andreas Ryff<\/em>, Basler Kostbarkeiten 12 (Basel, 1991), 18, Fig.&#160;5, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.hmb.ch\/fileadmin\/a\/hmb\/dateien\/pdf\/basler-kostbarkeiten\/HMB-12-Das-Virginal-des-Andreas-Ryff.pdf\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.hmb.ch\/fileadmin\/a\/hmb\/dateien\/pdf\/basler-kostbarkeiten\/HMB-12-Das-Virginal-des-Andreas-Ryff.pdf<\/span><\/a><span class=\"Hyperlink\">&gt;<\/span> (accessed on 22&#160;Sept. 2024).<a href=\"#fnref66\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn67\">\n<p>On the origins of all 110 of these mottos, see: Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 82 and 85.<a href=\"#fnref67\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn68\">\n<p>Howard Schott, Anthony Baines and James Yorke, <em>Catalogue of Musical Instruments in the Victoria and Albert Museum <\/em>(London, 1998), 18\u201319.<a href=\"#fnref68\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn69\">\n<p>Johann Heinrich Zedler, <em>Universal-Lexicon<\/em>,vol.&#160;37 (Leipzig\/Halle: J.H. Zedler, 1743), entry \u2018Sinnbild\u2019, col.&#160;1690, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/index.html?c=blaettern&amp;seitenzahl=858&amp;bandnummer=37&amp;view=100&amp;l=de\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/index.html?c=blaettern&amp;seitenzahl&#173;=858&amp;bandnummer=37&amp;view=100&amp;l=de<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref69\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn70\">\n<p>Interestingly, a portrait painted by Raphael in 1502 shows Elisabetta Gonzaga, the Duchess of Urbino, wearing a headband with a scorpion, which is interpreted as a love symbol in the object description but may also have been a reference to the astrological sign Scorpio, which is one of the fruitful signs. Elisabetta Gonzaga was unable to have children due to her husband\u2019s sterility. See: Anna Bisceglia, Portrait of Elisabetta Gonzaga \u2013 object description in the online catalogue of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.uffizi.it\/en\/artworks\/portrait-eleonora-gonzaga\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.uffizi.it\/en\/artworks\/portrait-eleonora-gonzaga<\/span><\/a><span class=\"Hyperlink\">&gt;<\/span> (accessed on 6&#160;Oct. 2024)<a href=\"#fnref70\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn71\">\n<p>Ovid, <em>Metamorphoses<\/em>, XII 112 and XIII 171, 303 and 326.<a href=\"#fnref71\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn72\">\n<p>See Daniel Meister, <em>Thesaurus philopoliticus. Politisches Schatzk\u00e4stlein <\/em>[Political Treasure Chest] <em>(1625\u201331)<\/em>, ed. Fritz Herrmann and Leonhard Kraft (Heidelberg, 1927). This text was originally published by Eberhardt Kieser, Frankfurt 1623. See the 1st booklet of the 1st book, p.&#160;7. Digital copy: &lt;<span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/de.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Meisner#\/media\/Datei:Meisner_Brugge.jpg<\/span>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref72\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn73\">\n<p>Johann Konrad Eberlein and Christine Jakobi-Mirwald, <em>Grundlagen der mittelalterlichen Kunst <\/em>(Berlin, 1996), 78.<a href=\"#fnref73\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn74\">\n<p>Giorgio Vasari, <em>Le Vite <\/em>(Florence, 1568), repr. ed. Gaetano Milanesi (Florence, 1878\u201385), vii, 594\u20135.<a href=\"#fnref74\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn75\">\n<p>Carel van Mander, <em>Das Leben der niederl\u00e4ndischen und deutschen Maler (from 1400\u20131615)<\/em>, translation of the 1617 edition [into German] with notes by Hanns Floerke (Wiesbaden, 2000), 362. (The English given here is translated from this German version.) The book was first printed in 1604 by Jacob de Meester at Alkmaar for Passchier van Westbusch, a bookseller in Harlem.<a href=\"#fnref75\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn76\">\n<p>Erasmus Weddigen, \u2018Jacopo Tintoretto und die Musik\u2019, in: <em>Artibus et Historiae <\/em>5 (1984), no.&#160;10, 67\u2013119, esp. at 77.<a href=\"#fnref76\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn77\">\n<p>See Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 237\u20138.<a href=\"#fnref77\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn78\">\n<p>On the relationship between the drawing and the lid, see Benati et al. (eds.), <em>The Drawings<\/em> (see n.&#160;29), 227.<a href=\"#fnref78\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn79\">\n<p>This cameo is also known as the Seal of Nero. It was first mentioned in 1428, when Lorenzo Ghiberti was commissioned to produce a gold setting for it. The cameo indirectly found its way to Lorenzo di Medici\u2019s collection in 1487, where it was one of the most highly valued objects. In 1583, it became part of the Farnese collection. On the history and meaning of this object cf. Tim Shephard et al., <em>Music in the Art of Renaissance Italy 1420\u20131540<\/em> (Turnhout, 2020), 193\u20135.<a href=\"#fnref79\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn80\">\n<p>See also the current status after a recent renovation &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.hermitagemuseum.org\/what-s-on\/d12c3644825adec3d074ad7576e9cb7f?lng=en\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.hermitagemuseum.org\/what-s-on\/d12c3644825adec3d074ad7576e9cb7f?lng=en<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref80\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn81\">\n<p>Vasari, <em>Le Vite<\/em> (see n.&#160;74),594\u20135. According to Shephard et al., <em>Music in the Art of Renaissance Italy<\/em> (see n.&#160;79), 192, an <em>arpicordo<\/em> is not a harpsichord, but a polygonal virginal.<a href=\"#fnref81\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn82\">\n<p>Raffaello Borghini, <em>Il riposo <\/em>(Florence: Giorgio Marescotti, 1584), 534, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/riposodiraffaell00borg\/page\/n3\/mode\/2up\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/riposodiraffaell00borg\/page\/n3\/mode\/2up<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref82\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn83\">\n<p>Jacob Burckhardt, <em>Die Kunst der Renaissance in Italien<\/em>, ed. Horst G\u00fcnther (Frankfurt a.M., 1997), 870.<a href=\"#fnref83\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn84\">\n<p>Hermann Voss, \u2018\u00dcber einige Gem\u00e4lde und Zeichnungen von Meistern aus dem Kreise Michelangelos\u2019, in: <em>Jahrbuch der K\u00f6niglich Preussischen Kunstsammlungen <\/em>34 (1913), 297\u2013320.<a href=\"#fnref84\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn85\">\n<p>John T. Spike, \u2018Rediscovery: Apollo and Marsyas by Bronzino\u2019, in: <em>FMR<\/em> 73 (1995), 14\u201324; Carmen Brambach et al., <em>The Drawings of Bronzino<\/em> (New York, 2010), 98\u2013101; Andrea Emiliani, \u2018Agnolo di Cosimo, known as Bronzino: The Competition between Apollo and Marsyas\u2019, in: <em>From Sacro to Profano: The Giorgio Baratti Art Collection from Milan<\/em>, ed. Daiva Mitruleviciute et al. (Vilnius, 2020), 617; Stephen J. Campbell, \u2018Bronzino\u2019s Fable of Marsyas: Anatomy as Myth\u2019, in: <em>Inner and Outer Body<\/em>, ed. Victor Stoichita (Rome, 2012), 173\u201394.<a href=\"#fnref85\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn86\">\n<p>Shephard et al., <em>Music in the Art of Renaissance Italy<\/em> (see n.&#160;79), 192, mention that the painting kept in the Eremitage was altered \u2018early on\u2019 from an \u2018irregular trapezoid to a regular rectangle\u2019.<a href=\"#fnref86\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn87\">\n<p>Ovid, <em>Metamorphoses<\/em>, VI 382\u2013400 and XI 150\u2013400.<a href=\"#fnref87\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn88\">\n<p>For more details, see Shephard et al., <em>Music in the Art of Renaissance Italy<\/em> (see n.&#160;79), 191\u2013205.<a href=\"#fnref88\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn89\">\n<p>It is interesting to note that an English manuscript from the 12th century already places instruments in the canonical categorises of \u2018goats and sheep\u2019. See Rueger, <em>Musikinstrument und Dekor<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), 9.<a href=\"#fnref89\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn90\">\n<p>See &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/345269\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/345269<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref90\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn91\">\n<p>Dennis, \u2018Musical Sound and Material Culture\u2019 (see n.&#160;1), 376.<a href=\"#fnref91\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn92\">\n<p>Albrecht D\u00fcrer, Albrecht Altdorfer, and Joachim Patinir are generally viewed as the founders of landscape painting in the early modern period. Cf. Norbert Schneider, <em>Geschichte der Landschaftsmalerei vom Sp\u00e4tmittelalter bis zur Romantik<\/em> (Darmstadt, 1999).<a href=\"#fnref92\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn93\">\n<p>Maria Cristina Casali, \u2018Decorazione\u2019, in: John Henry van der Meer and Luigi Ferdinando Tagliavini (eds.), <em>Collezione Tagliavini. Catalogo degli strumenti musicali<\/em>, 2&#160;vols. (Bologna, 2007\/08), i, 329\u201330, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/digital.fondazionecarisbo.it\/artwork\/collezione-tagliavini-catalogo-degli-strumenti-musicali-3\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/digital.fondazionecarisbo.it\/artwork\/collezione-tagliavini-catalogo-degli-strumenti-musicali-3<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref93\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn94\">\n<p>Rudolf Hopfner, <em>Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien. Masterpieces of the Collection of Historic Musical Instruments<\/em>, A Brief Guide to the Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien 1 (Vienna, 2019), 46\u20137.<a href=\"#fnref94\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn95\">\n<p>See Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente<\/em> (see n.&#160;1),197\u20138, 340.<a href=\"#fnref95\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn96\">\n<p>Cf. for example Sheridan Germann, \u2018Monsieur Doublet and His Confr\u00e8res: The Harpsichord Decorators of Paris\u2019, in: <em>EM<\/em> 8 (1980), 435\u201353; 9 (1981), 192\u2013207.<a href=\"#fnref96\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn97\">\n<p>Germann, <em>Harpsichord Decoration<\/em> (see n.&#160;1),31; O\u2019Brien, <em>Ruckers <\/em>(see n.&#160;1), 149\u201357.<a href=\"#fnref97\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn98\">\n<p>Ibid., 299\u2013300.<a href=\"#fnref98\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn99\">\n<p>Johann Heinrich Zedler, <em>Universal-Lexicon<\/em>,vol.&#160;34 (Leipzig\/Halle: J.H. Zedler, 1742), entry \u2018Schall\u2019, col.&#160;825, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/index.html?c=blaettern&amp;bandnummer=34&amp;seitenzahl=426&amp;dateiformat=1&amp;view=100&amp;supplement=0%27)\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/index.html?c=blaettern&amp;bandnummer=34&amp;seitenzahl=426&amp;dateiformat=1&amp;view=100&amp;supplement=0%27)<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed 4&#160;March 2025).<a href=\"#fnref99\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn100\">\n<p>See Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente <\/em>(see n.&#160;1), 158\u201360. At the same time, these designs might draw on the well-established tradition of floral motifs as marginal decorations in 16th-century manuscripts.<a href=\"#fnref100\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn101\">\n<p>A clearer illustration can be found in ibid., 190.<a href=\"#fnref101\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn102\">\n<p>Also a frequent motto on 17th- and 18th-century instrument lids, see ibid., 98.<a href=\"#fnref102\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn103\">\n<p>Germann, <em>Harpsichord Decoration<\/em> (see n.&#160;1),28\u201330.<a href=\"#fnref103\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn104\">\n<p>Equally, the interior of church buildings has been compared to the soul (\u2018anima\u2019) of Christ or the saints and every good Christian (\u2018ogni buon Cristiano\u2019). For this reason, it should be richly and beautifully decorated, even in places that are not visible to church visitors. Cf. Pietro Cataneo Senese, <em>I quattro primi libri di architettura <\/em>(Venice: Figliuoli di Aldo Manuzio, 1554), iii, 38, &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000235384&amp;page=1\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000235384&amp;page=1<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 4&#160;August 2025).<a href=\"#fnref104\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn105\">\n<p>Georg Streng, <em>Das Rosettenmotiv in der Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte <\/em>(Munich, 1918), 55.<a href=\"#fnref105\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn106\">\n<p>Detailed information on the development of the rose into a \u2018logo\u2019 can be found in Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente <\/em>(see n.&#160;1), esp. 163\u20134.<a href=\"#fnref106\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn107\">\n<p>The rampant trade in tulip bulbs in the Netherlands led to the first documented speculative bubble, which burst in 1637. Jan Breughel the Younger even created several paintings of tulip bulb-trading monkeys as allegories of \u2018tulipomania\u2019; see the 1640 version at the Frans Hals Museum in Haarlem.<a href=\"#fnref107\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h4 id=\"10\">Bibliography<\/h4>\n<p><\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Rosario Assunto, <em>Die Theorie des Sch\u00f6nen im Mittelalter <\/em>(Cologne, 1982)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">G\u00fcnter Bandmann, \u2018Ikonologie des Ornaments und der Dekoration\u2019, in: <em>Jahrbuch f\u00fcr \u00c4sthetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft <\/em>4 (1958\/1959), 232\u201358<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Giovanni Pietro Bellori, <em>Nota delli musei, librerie, gallerie et ornamenti di statue e pitture ne\u2019 palazzo, nelle case e ne\u2019 giardini di Roma <\/em>(Rome: Deversin and Cesaretti, 1664), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb11098347\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb11098347<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Thomas Aurelius Belz, \u2018Gartendarstellungen auf fl\u00e4mischen Kielinstrumenten\u2019, in: <em>G\u00e4rten und H\u00f6fe der Rubenszeit<\/em>, ed. Ursula H\u00e4rting (Munich, 2000), 135\u201342<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Thomas Aurelius Belz, <em>Das Instrument der Dame. Bemalte Kielklaviere aus drei Jahrhunderten<\/em> (Bamberg, 1998)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Daniele Benati et al. (eds.), <em>The Drawings of Annibale Carracci<\/em> [Catalogue of an exhibition held at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 26&#160;Sept. 1999 \u2013 9&#160;January 2000] (Washington, 1999)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Anthony Blunt, <em>Kunsttheorie in Italien 1450\u20131600 <\/em>(Munich, 1984)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Donald H. Boalch, <em>Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord 1440\u20131840<\/em>, 3rd ed., ed. by Charles Mould (Oxford, 1995)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Raffaello Borghini, <em>Il riposo <\/em>(Florence: Giorgio Marescotti, 1584), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/riposodiraffaell00borg\/page\/n3\/mode\/2up\">https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/riposodiraffaell00borg\/page\/n3\/mode\/2up<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Carmen Brambach et al., <em>The Drawings of Bronzino<\/em> (New York, 2010)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Jacob Burckhardt, <em>Die Kunst der Renaissance in Italien<\/em>, ed. Horst G\u00fcnther (Frankfurt a.M., 1997)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Stephen J. Campbell, \u2018Bronzino\u2019s Fable of Marsyas: Anatomy as Myth\u2019, in: <em>Inner and Outer Body<\/em>, ed. 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David Raeburn (London, 2004)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Stewart Pollens, \u2018Flemish Harpsichords and Virginals in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: An Analysis of Early Alterations and Restorations\u2019, in: <em>Metropolitan Museums Journal <\/em>32 (1997), 85\u2013110<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Heidelinde Pollerus, <em>Tasteninstrumente als kunsthistorische Objekte. Cembalo, Clavichord, Spinett, Virginal<\/em> (Graz\/Vienna, 2018)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">William F. Prizer, \u2018Isabella d\u2019Este and Lorenzo da Pavia, \u201cMaster Instrument-Maker\u201d\u2019, in: <em>EMH<\/em> 2 (1982), 87\u2013118 and 120\u20137<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Gregor von Rezzori, <em>Mir auf der Spur <\/em>(Munich, 1999)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Edward M. 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Gaetano Milanesi (Florence, 1878\u201385)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Sebastian Virdung, <em>Musica getutscht und ausgezogen<\/em>, [Basel] [Michael Furter] [1511] (vdm: 3), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/SBB0001444100000000\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de\/SBB0001444100000000<\/span><\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Hermann Voss, \u2018\u00dcber einige Gem\u00e4lde und Zeichnungen von Meistern aus dem Kreise Michelangelos\u2019, in: <em>Jahrbuch der K\u00f6niglich Preussischen Kunstsammlungen <\/em>34 (1913), 297\u2013320<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Erasmus Weddigen, \u2018Jacopo Tintoretto und die Musik\u2019, in: <em>Artibus et Historiae <\/em>5 (1984), no.&#160;10, 67\u2013119<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Thijs Weststeijn, \u2018Decorum\u2019, in: <em>Grundbegriffe der Kunstwissenschaft<\/em>, ed. Stefan Jordan and J\u00fcrgen M\u00fcller (Ditzingen, 2018), 88\u201391<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Reginald Howard Wilenski, <em>Flemish Painters 1430\u20131830<\/em>, 2&#160;vols. (London, 1960)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Clovis Withfield, \u2018Agostino risarcito parte II. Nuovi spunti sul vero ruolo del maggiore dei fratelli Carracci\u2019, in: <em>About Art Online<\/em> (2018), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.aboutartonline.com\/agostino-risarcito-parte-2-nuovi-spunti-sul-vero-ruolo-del-maggiore-dei-fratelli-carracci-with-english-text\/\">https:\/\/www.aboutartonline.com\/agostino-risarcito-parte-2-nuovi-spunti-sul-vero-ruolo-del-maggiore-dei-fratelli-carracci-with-english-text\/<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Johann Heinrich Zedler, <em>Universal-Lexicon<\/em>,68&#160;vols. (Leipzig\/Halle: J.H. Zedler, 1731\u201354), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/\">https:\/\/www.zedler-lexikon.de\/<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Heinrich Zimerman (ed.), \u2018Urkunden, Acten und Regesten aus dem Archiv des k.&#160;k. Ministeriums des Inneren (Fortsetzung)\u2019, in: <em>Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des Allerh\u00f6chsten Kaiserhauses<\/em> 7 (1888), xvii\u2013lxxxiv<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Phenomena of Keyboard Instrument Decoration in the Sixteenth Century Heidelinde Pollerus &nbsp; Appearance and prestige \u2013 two perennially interrelated terms. Where historical keyboard instruments are concerned, \u2018appearance\u2019 naturally refers to an object\u2019s purely visual outward effect. However, such appearance is closely related to the meaning and reputation of the object as well as its purpose. &hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[271],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-8218","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-harpsichord-in-the-sixteenth-century-2-italy"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v26.9 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Appearance and Prestige &#8211; mdwPress<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp017-010\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Appearance and Prestige &#8211; mdwPress\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Phenomena of Keyboard Instrument Decoration in the Sixteenth Century Heidelinde Pollerus &nbsp; Appearance and prestige \u2013 two perennially interrelated terms. 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