{"id":7642,"date":"2026-03-31T11:08:07","date_gmt":"2026-03-31T09:08:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/?p=7642"},"modified":"2026-03-31T11:27:40","modified_gmt":"2026-03-31T09:27:40","slug":"mdwp008-006","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/","title":{"rendered":"Indigenizing"},"content":{"rendered":"<style>\n        .tsquotation strong {<br \/>\n            font-weight: bold;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n        .tsquotation em {<br \/>\n            font-style: italic !important;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n        .bibliography {<br \/>\n            margin-top: -1em !important;<br \/>\n            padding-left: 22px;<br \/>\n            text-indent: -22px;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n        figure {<br \/>\n            margin: 0;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n.fig-row{\n    display:flex;\n    gap: 20px;\n    align-items:flex-start;\n    justify-content:center;\n    flex-wrap:wrap; \n  }\n  .fig{\n    margin:0;\n    width:30%;          \n    min-width:240px;    \n  }\n  .fig-img{\n    width:100%;\n    height:auto;\n    display:block;\n  }\n  .fig .caption-text{\n    display:block;\n    margin-top:6px;\n    font-size:0.9em;\n    line-height:1.25;\n  }\n    <\/style>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"one_half\">\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class='bdaia-btns bdaia-btn-medium' style=\"background:#b2b2b2 !important;color:#000000 !important;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-005\/\" style=\"color:#000000 !important;\">&#129028;<\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"one_half last\">\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><span class='bdaia-btns bdaia-btn-medium' style=\"background:#b2b2b2 !important;color:#000000 !important;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-007\" style=\"color:#000000 !important;\">&#129030;<\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"clear-fix\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"bdaia-toggle close\"><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-open\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio 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id=\"zp-ID-7642-4511395-75KZDHUJ\" data-zp-author-date='Annu\u00df-2025' data-zp-date-author='2025-Annu\u00df' data-zp-date='2025' data-zp-year='2025' data-zp-itemtype='book' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; padding-left: 1em; text-indent:-1em;\">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\">Annu\u00df, Evelyn. 2025. <i>Dirty Dragging. Performative Transpositions<\/i>. mdwPress. <a class='zp-ItemURL' href='https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14361\/9783839474754'>https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14361\/9783839474754<\/a>. <a title='Cite in RIS Format' class='zp-CiteRIS' data-zp-cite='api_user_id=4511395&item_key=75KZDHUJ' href='javascript:void(0);'>Cite<\/a> <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\n\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-zp-SEO-Content -->\n\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-List -->\n\t<\/div><!--.zp-Zotpress-->\n\n\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"bdaia-toggle close\"><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-open\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-up\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-close\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-down\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><div class=\"toggle-content\"><p>\n<a href=\"#1\">Thing (Euringer, Heynicke)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#2\">Volkskunde (Wolfram, Perchten)<\/a><br \/>\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<hr>\n<p><!-- \n\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\">[btn btnlink=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/10.1515_9783839425015-001.pdf\" btnsize=\"medium\" bgcolor=\"#b2b2b2\" txtcolor=\"#000000\" btnnewt=\"1\" nofollow=\"1\"]CHAPTER PDF <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\" style=\"vertical-align: middle\" alt=\"Download-Logo\" width=\"17\" height=\"17\">[\/btn]\n\n --><\/p>\n<p>Exotic spectacles such as <em>Ki sua heli<\/em> were preceded by experiments in propagandistic mass culture labeled as genuinely National Socialist. These were buttressed, not least, by academic claims of Germanic lineages. Alongside a visual regime of antisemitic invective<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>prefigured, for instance, by Braun\u2019s photo in drag<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the Nazis relied on fictitious, ethnonationalist \u201cself-indigenization:\u201d an assertion of their own autochthonous rootedness in a German blood and soil. The performative flipside of these exclusionary policies, marked by derogatory and exoticizing hypervisibilizations of supposed Others, can be observed in two case studies: the so-called <em>Thingspiele<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>mass choral propaganda theater<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and a form of Germanic ethnology (<em>Volkskunde<\/em>) shaped by dance studies. The Thingspiele theatricalized a German modernity supposedly cleansed of the impurities of cultural contaminations through fictionalized, militaristic reenactments of the Nazi seizure of power and the staging of the <em>Volksgemeinschaft<\/em>. Volkskunde, in turn, supported this performative fiction with retrospectively invented customs drawing from <em>m\u00e4nnerb\u00fcndian<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>i. e., fraternal<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>fantasies and provided the genealogical legitimation of contemporary territorial politics. Theater and ethnology each invoked moving bodies in the service of Nazi propaganda: as instruments of decreolization and the cleansing of cultural entanglements. While targeting allegedly \u201cdirty\u201d modes of performing and relating, these invocations themselves could be read as a form of racialized dragging: as the exaggerated staging of a people\u2019s body<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the Nazi <em>Volksk\u00f6rper<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"1\">Thing (Euringer, Heynicke)<\/h4>\n<p>\u201cRooted\u201d in an ancient Germanic folk etymology, invented by theatre studies, the Thingspiele<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a mass theatrical form devised for Nazi propaganda shortly after their seizure of power<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>were conceived as modernized court plays meant to revive claimed Germanic origins in a modern guise.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn307\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref307\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>307<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In practice, this supposedly ancestral label served as a vehicle to extend avantgarde movement and choral aesthetics of the Weimar period. These mass spectacles sought to performatively conjure the national community, presenting the becoming of one people as the realization of its \u201cnature\u201d by Nazi ideology. In open-air theaters<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Thingst\u00e4tten<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>constructed by local governments in coordination with the Nazi propaganda ministry, specially recruited marching columns moved through the audience. Supposedly playing themselves, these performers were meant to simulate a territorially bounded mode of participation. At first, the movement repertoire still bore the mark of early interwar avant-garde experimentation, particularly the tradition of \u201cAusdruckstanz,\u201d that is, so-called German dance. The Thingspiele were designed to generate surrogate communal experiences within a staged sense of collective unity. While Joseph Roach\u2019s <em>Cities of the Dead<\/em> defines surrogation as the creolized signature of the circum-Atlantic world shaped by colonial trauma,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn308\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref308\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>308<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the Thingspiele instead grappled with the traumas of World War&#160;I as described by Benjamin in <em>Erfahrung und Armut<\/em>, thus emerging as a National Socialist form of surrogation.<\/p>\n<p>The choral mass performances, mainly staged by the Reichsarbeitsdienst (Reich Labor Service) and party branches, \u201creenacted\u201d the alleged Nazi revolution of 1933. The prominent playwright Richard Euringer, in particular, used his theatrical work as a vehicle for personal reckoning. His first award-winning Thingspiel, <em>Deutsche Passion 1933<\/em>, which restaged Germany\u2019s defeat in World War&#160;I as a passion play, served as a model.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn309\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref309\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>309<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, my focus here is on Euringer\u2019s largely unknown and apparently never-performed later 1935 play <em>Totentanz<\/em>, which returns to the theme of defeat in World War&#160;I and a soldierly national rebirth under Nazi rule. More starkly than other Thingspiele, this five-scene <em>Totentanz<\/em> violently distances itself from the creolized aesthetics of the Jazz Age and reveals the symptomatic terror embedded in Nazi figurations of indigeneity. In turn, Kurt Heynicke\u2019s <em>Der Weg ins Reich<\/em> (The path to the Reich), which recounts the consolidation of the Nazi state apparatus, illustrates how the brutality of <em>Totentanz<\/em> was transformed into the choric staging of structural violence. Here, the Volksgemeinschaft becomes presented as a surrounding figure and immobilized.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cJazzen! Jazzen! Jazzen! \/ Bis die D\u00e4rme platzen! \u2026 Tanzen! Tanzen! Tanzen! \/\/ Fre\u00dft die V\u00f6lkerwanzen!\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn310\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref310\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>310<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>in English: \u201cJazz! Jazz! Jazz till the guts burst! \u2026 Dance! Dance! Dance! Feast on the lice of the Volk.\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>declares <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Der Tote Mann <\/span>(The dead man), the redeemer figure in Euringer\u2019s choral court play <em>Totentanz<\/em>. Labeled by its subtitle as \u201ca dance of the living dead and the awakened musketeers,\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn311\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref311\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>311<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> that is, of low-ranking soldiers, the work draws on medieval allegories and contemporary grotesque number revues at the same time. More than any other Thingspiel, it exposes the violent phantasm of the Nazi Volksgemeinschaft as set against a globalized mass culture, thus anticipating the sociocidal turn of Nazi politics. <em>Totentanz<\/em> aimed to restore soldierly masculinity. The play belongs to that \u201cflood of war books\u201d which, according to Benjamin\u2019s <em>Experience and Poverty<\/em>, indicated the \u201closs of experience passing from mouth to ear.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn312\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref312\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>312<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> <em>Totentanz<\/em> lays bare how the traumas of World War&#160;I were transformed into nationalist self-victimization and, ultimately, into political violence. Euringer\u2019s ghostly choral play depicts vigilante justice carried out by the dead against grotesquely rendered, supposedly \u201cdirty\u201d figures. This is made explicit in the \u201cLeits\u00e4tze zur Spielgestaltung\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>or \u201cGuidelines for Staging\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>that precede the play itself:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">Bei der Auff\u00fchrung als <em>Tanzwerk <\/em>treten die Schieber der Lebewelt<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>ausschlie\u00dflich der Goldnen Puppe<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>in h\u00f6l&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;zer&#173;&#173;nen Gesichtsmasken auf, die den Charakter typisieren. Man spare nicht an Spukgew\u00e4ndern! Typen wie der <em>Weltvampir<\/em> sind ins Phantastische zu steigern, Typen wie das <em>Schnapsgesicht, <\/em>der <em>Spie\u00dfb\u00fcrger<\/em> und der <em>Pr\u00e4sident <\/em>ins Groteske zu \u00fcbertreiben, da und dort nicht ohne Humor.<br \/>Die toten Muskoten dagegen erscheinen grau und ernst, vertraut und menschlich. Die Uniformen der Nationen, auf das Schlichteste stilisiert, kennzeichnen den Tr\u00e4ger etwa. Dem internationalen Spuk setzen sie den Mannschaftskorpsgeist jeglicher Nation entgegen.<br \/>Die Scharen des <em>Volkes<\/em> erscheinen b\u00e4uerlich, was nicht besagt, es d\u00fcrften die St\u00e4nde der Schaffenden nicht irgendwie erkenntlich sein. Nur tritt der Halbwelt der <em>Metropole<\/em> hier die andere Welt entgegen.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn313\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref313\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>313<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">In the <em>choreographed<\/em> performance, the dealers of the demimonde appear wearing typified wooden character masks<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>except for the Golden Doll. No expense should be spared on ghostly costumes! Figures such as the <em>World Vampire<\/em> should be elevated into the realm of the fantastic, while figures like the <em>Booze-Face<\/em>, the <em>Petty Bourgeois<\/em>, and the <em>President<\/em> should be grotesquely exaggerated<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>at times not without humor. <br \/>The dead musketeers, by contrast, appear as gray, solemn, familiar, and humane. Their national uniforms, modestly stylized, indicate their bearers. They counter the international specter with the male esprit de corps of each nation. <br \/>The crowds of the <em>Volk<\/em> appear peasant-like<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>which is not to say that the various social strands of working people may not be recognizable somehow. It is simply that the underworld of the <em>metropolis<\/em> is here confronted by the other world.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Euringer\u2019s play, which suffers from the genre problem that the depiction of the demimonde appears much more spectacular than some grayish defeated soldiers, also makes subliminal reference to the Weimar reception of a new transoceanic mass culture. Accordingly, ghostly figures form a kind of equivalential chain of killability<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the constitutive outside of the Volksgemeinschaft: \u201cGauner, Schieber, Spekulanten\/Volksverhetzer, Intriganten,\/Bankbanditen, Parasiten,\/Literaten, Trustmagnaten\/und geheime Diplomaten\u201d (\u201ccrooks, dealers, speculators\/demagogues, schemers, bank bandits, parasites\/literati, trust magnates\/and secret diplomats\u201d).<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn314\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref314\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>314<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> These figures ghostly dance around a naked <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Puppe <\/span>(doll)<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>\u201cdas vergeilte Weibsgesicht\u201d (\u201cthe horny female face\u201d)<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>while \u201c<em>Frechstes Jazzgepl\u00e4rr<\/em>\u201d(\u201c<em>cheekiest jazz blare<\/em>\u201d) begins.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn315\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref315\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>315<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In the second scene, the music by Leipzig composer Siegfried Walther M\u00fcller transforms, as noted in the stage directions, into a <em>Carmagnole der Schieber- und der Lebewelt um die Goldne Gliederpuppe<\/em>\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>\u201c<em>im Tanztakt gestampft<\/em>\u201d <em>(\u201cCarmagnole of the racketeers and the demimonde around the golden jointed doll\u201d \u2026 \u201cstomped in dance rhythm\u201d)<\/em><span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn316\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref316\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>316<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Euringer mixes the dance-of-death motif with borrowings from Max Reinhardt\u2019s Salzburg <em>Jedermann<\/em>, the allegory of the golden <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Mammon<\/span>. The naked, golden <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Puppe<\/span>, which can also be read as an allusion to creolized, \u201cbrown\u201d mass culture personified by Baker, calls for dancing: \u201cDie Kugel rollt, die Welt ist rund\/und kreiselt um die Pole. \u2026 tanzt die Carmagnole!\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn317\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref317\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>317<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> (\u201cThe ball rolls, the world is round\/and spins around the poles. \u2026 dance the carmagnole!\u201d) The Thingspiel begins where Krenek\u2019s <em>Jonny spielt auf<\/em> ends<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>with the dance around the world. Respectively, the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Puppe<\/span>, later calling for face paint,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn318\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref318\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>318<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> appears as the allegory of the Jazz Republic and its uncontrollable, transoceanic-nomadic mass culture. <\/p>\n<p>In the third scene, Euringer contrasts this with the chorus of the fallen from all factions of World War&#160;I, accompanied by marching music. Colonial soldiers from the French army also rising from mass graves evoke Old World European racism, intertwining fears of racial mixing with imperial claims to land, and drawing a sharp line between the colonized cast as indigenous and the threat of creolization:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Tote Senegalneger<\/span>:<br \/>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchleppten uns, wei\u00df nicht, wohin. <br \/>Wu\u00dften nie, warum, wieso, <br \/>und zittern und frieren noch immer so.<br \/>Sind erb\u00e4rmlich aufgewacht;<br \/>treibt ihr uns wieder in die Schlacht?!<br \/><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\" xml:lang=\"en-US\">Der tote Mann<\/span>: Arme Luder! Macht nach Haus!<br \/>Fechten\u2019s wohl alleine aus.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn319\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref319\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>319<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Dead Senegalese Negroes:<\/span> <br \/>Dragged us<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>who knows where. <br \/>Never knew the why or wherefore, <br \/>and are still shaking and freezing. <br \/>Woke up wretched<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span> <br \/>you\u2019re sending us to war again?! <br \/><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">The Dead Man<\/span>: Poor bastards! Get yourselves home! <br \/>We\u2019ll have to fight it out on our own.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Unlike the golden, hollow <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Puppe<\/span>, which later shatters like porcelain, the colonial soldiers serving in the French army appear as part of the returning dead.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn320\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref320\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>320<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, the chorus of Senegalese soldiers also illustrates the ambivalence with which the relation to the African continent is portrayed. Following the logic of <em>Totentanz<\/em>, they should be sent back<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>to Africa, their \u201chomeland\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as victims of French imperialism, since the play\u2019s main target is an internationalist mass culture framed as Jewish, for instance, in references to Max Reinhardt\u2019s Salzburg <em>Jedermann<\/em>. Its appendages<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the world of the racketeers and the demimonde are finally danced to death in a \u201cMassengrub\u201d (mass pit) by <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Toter Mann<\/span>, a figure reminiscent of Hitler in the persona of \u201cthe nameless soldier.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn321\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref321\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>321<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Accordingly, the \u201chellish sabbath of the orgy\u201d in the final scene culminates in a \u201cdance of horror\u201d to the \u201cheroic\u201d rhythm of marching music.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn322\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref322\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>322<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In the aftermath of Germany\u2019s 1918 defeat, the play offers necropolitical National Socialist masculinity. Respectively, the choreographed massacre serves to protect a village-like community of women, children, and the elderly catering to contemporary retrotopian fantasies of purity and transposing veterans\u2019 traumas into the fictionalized annihilation of \u201cthe Others.\u201d As in Krenek\u2019s work, Euringer\u2019s associates blackness not only with skin color but, referring to its Old World European, that is, pre-Black Atlantic understanding, with death and the invisible. Euringer\u2019s <em>Totentanz<\/em> thus blends the dance of death motif with coloniality, modern racism, and resentment toward the nomadic or creolization. In doing so, however, it evokes premodern aesthetics that resist representation.<\/p>\n<p>In the early years of Nazism, the stagings of the seizure of power demanded constant aesthetic transformation to appeal to a mass audience. In the mid-1930s, shortly before the end of the Thingspiel era, the apotropaic ban of a creolized carnivalesque<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>clearly evident in Euringer\u2019s <em>Totentanz<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>became transposed onto the expulsion of the comic figure. Kurt Heynicke\u2019s <em>Der Weg ins Reich<\/em> premiered at the Heidelberg Thingst\u00e4tte, which had just been completed the same year as the Nuremberg Laws, which codified Nazi racial ideology by stripping citizenship from Jews and prohibiting \u201cracial defilement\u201d through marriage or sexual relations.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn323\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref323\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>323<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The 1935 production transformed the theater\u2019s architecture into a mass choreography of bodies. In this model production, directed by Lothar M\u00fcthel and<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>once again<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>designed and choreographed by Traugott M\u00fcller, the image of the national community became rendered geometrically; the soldierly chorus was staged as a wall to exclude the comic figure. <em>Der Weg ins Reich<\/em> pursued a propaganda aesthetic that banished creolized mass culture along with overly ambivalent folk-theatrical elements by ornamentalizing the Volksgemeinschaft. Performance photos show how the chorus became arranged as an extension of the stage architecture in standing still in strict ranks and files.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935.jpg\" alt=\"A black-and-white photo shows a round open-air stage where groups of soldierly uniformed performers are arranged in two outer circles and two centered rows.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"932\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7363\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935-1024x682.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935-150x100.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935-768x511.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/28_Der-Weg-ins-Reich-Thingstaette-Heiligenberg-Reichsfestspiele-Heidelberg-1935-850x566.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><strong>Figure 28:<\/strong> <em>Der Weg ins Reich, <\/em>Thingst\u00e4tte Heiligenberg, Reichsfestspiele Heidelberg, 1935. Theaterhistorische Sammlungen of the Theater Studies Institute at the FU Berlin.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The mass assault on \u201cthe Others,\u201d which plays a central role in <em>Totentanz<\/em>, is merely alluded to through two exemplary figures: the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Abtr\u00fcnnige<\/span> (renegade)<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>reminiscent of <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Mephisto <\/span>from Goethe\u2019s <em>Faust<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>who is eventually expelled and drags with him a chorus of <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Mitl\u00e4ufer <\/span>(followers), functioning as a counterchorus to the groups of <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">K\u00e4mpfende (<\/span>fighters); and the \u201cgeckenhaft gekleideten\u201d (\u201cfoppishly dressed\u201d)<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn324\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref324\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>324<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Schwankende (<\/span>waverer), who fails to penetrate the closed ranks of the chorus. Played by Hans Hessling, who would later also appear in <em>Ki sua heli<\/em>, the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Schwankende<\/span> is ultimately driven off the stage. M\u00fcthel and M\u00fcller adapted the expulsion of the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Harlequin <\/span>for the Nazi stage, and in targeting the comic figure, they also attacked the genre associated with it: namely, Old European folk theater and its play with referential slipperiness. Euringer\u2019s crude portrayals of violence were translated into the spatial arrangement, which thus became a chorally generated environment<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a living wall.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/29_Der-Schwankende-Kostuemskizze-Traugott-Mueller-1938-Ausschnitt.jpg\" alt=\"A watercolor sketch shows a standing figure in a yellow long-tailed jacket, hat, and black-and-white striped trousers.\" width=\"700\" height=\"1444\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7364\" style=\"width:55%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/29_Der-Schwankende-Kostuemskizze-Traugott-Mueller-1938-Ausschnitt.jpg 700w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/29_Der-Schwankende-Kostuemskizze-Traugott-Mueller-1938-Ausschnitt-145x300.jpg 145w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/29_Der-Schwankende-Kostuemskizze-Traugott-Mueller-1938-Ausschnitt-496x1024.jpg 496w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/29_Der-Schwankende-Kostuemskizze-Traugott-Mueller-1938-Ausschnitt-73x150.jpg 73w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 700px) 100vw, 700px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><strong>Figure 29:<\/strong> <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Der Schwankende<\/span> (the waverer), costume sketch: Traugott M\u00fcller, 1938 (detail). Traugott M\u00fcller Collection, Theaterhistorische Sammlungen of the Theater Studies Institute at the FU Berlin.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>This Thing aesthetic again serves to exorcise the nomadic figure. The persona with a stick, white gaiters, and a conspicuous hat<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>first hobbling, then merely limping<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>can also be read as an implicit minstrel reference, evoking \u201cJump Jim Crow\u201d and their ilk; however, the citation omits the element of blackface. M\u00fcller\u2019s costume sketch shows the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Schwankende<\/span> in a yellow long-tailed dandy jacket with matching headgear and striped trousers with gaiters, faintly recalling depictions of <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Zip Coon<\/span>. Ostensibly identified by the audience as \u201cthe Jew,\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn325\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref325\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>325<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> this harlequin-like minstrel figure is presented as only \u201chalf a man\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a drag-like character associated with contemporary antisemitic and homophobic stereotypes. He appears as an allegory of everything that contradicts the statuesque image of an idealized, corporatist national community<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>colorful, yet orderly. Still, <em>Der Weg ins Reich<\/em> stages this national community as &#173;inherently precarious. It is not only the apparently \u201cfoppish\u201d <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Schwankende<\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014&#173;<\/span>neither a \u201creal man\u201d nor a \u201creal German\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>who is introduced as a figure of minor mimesis. Reversing their costumes and speech,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn326\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref326\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>326<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Mitl\u00e4ufer<\/span> initially attempt to infiltrate the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">main chorus, <\/span>embodying the community of the Volk, in disguise, only to be swept along by its sound and to become reintegrated by once again reversing their garb.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn327\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref327\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>327<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The choral scene thus explicitly stages a collective withdrawal from \u201cdrag.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>In turn, colonial discourse is transposed into a portrayal of land appropriation on home soil. The figure of the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Heimkehrer<\/span> (returnee) is depicted as an engineer who has \u2018\u201cworked, toiled, lost, won, grabbed\u201d in a foreign country.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn328\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref328\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>328<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In the new Germany, he contributes to building a dam<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>subjugating nature. Precisely because of his experiences abroad, he comes to embody a modern racist perspective on German supremacy. At the same time, he represents the F\u00fchrer perspective. In the play, this is set in contrast to a <em>v\u00f6lkisch<\/em>, familial ancestor cult, represented by an old peasant woman who initially refuses to relinquish her family\u2019s land to advance the national community, but ultimately submits to the collective cause. The Thingspiel concludes with a spectacle of fire that harmonizes modernity and archaic cult. It stands at the threshold between the early militaristic mass stagings and the later mass ornamental spectacles. The Thingspiele bear witness to how the Nazis essentialized \u201cblood and soil\u201d through the choral figure of the Volksgemeinschaft as they consolidated their rule. At the same time, the abrupt demise of these Thing plays in the mid-1930s illustrates how swiftly propaganda instruments can lose their effectiveness.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn329\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref329\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>329<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Later, up until the beginning of World War&#160;II, mass ornamental pageants were staged alongside revues such as <em>Ki sua heli<\/em>, which clearly no longer relied on representational choral performance to enable surrogate participation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn330\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref330\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>330<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As <em>Der Weg ins Reich<\/em> demonstrates, the national community was transposed into a deployed \u201cenvironmental figuration,\u201d and thus rendered as second nature.<\/p>\n<p>During the Weimar Republic, Siegfried Kracauer had argued that ornaments of the masses, as a modern \u201c<em>rational and empty form<\/em> of the cult,\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn331\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref331\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>331<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> could evoke an understanding of social relationships as collective labor, rather than organic. Kracauer saw them as the antithesis of blood-and-soil ideologies and respective group figures. The Thingspiele, however, repurposed the ornamental<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as a territorial figure and a performative threat of exclusion. They gave concrete form to the national community, transforming it from a figure evoking the uprising of the dead (<em>Totentanz<\/em>) into a domesticated environment purged of unruly movement (<em>Der Weg ins Reich<\/em>). Nazi Volkskunde<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>an ethnographic discipline based on racial understandings of the ancient Germans<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>in turn conceptualized the Volksgemeinschaft through the occlusion of the carnivalesque from the study of masking rituals. Here, too, the aim was to expel references to mass culture and borrowings from globalized mimetic forms, to code the Volk as soldierly and masculine, and to suppress reflexive performativity.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"2\">Volkskunde (Wolfram, Perchten)<\/h4>\n<p>One sees a ghostly, at first glance barely decipherable bustle of wandering, disguised people<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>some appear alone, others in pairs, and still others in gangs. At the outset, strange figures dressed in suits made of fir branches or pinecones climb up the side of a house and enter through a window, dragging along a man with a sooty face. Then someone appears in a patchwork costume<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a kind of Harlequin-style red-and-white jumpsuit, with a white face mask and a pointed patchwork cap<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>swinging a doll on a leash. Then, someone in uniform, straddling a toy horse, cracks a whip. Eventually, a kind of procession comes into view: older men wearing fantastical, reflective headdresses adorned with brightly colored flowers<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>some several meters high<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>walk alongside young men dressed in dirndls. Their cross-dressing is accompanied by spectacularly monstrous apparitions: one wears a fur costume with cowbells; others don grotesque wooden masks with horns. Some simply have black, red, or white cloths over their faces, with eye holes cut out. Others wear Orientalized masks: one has a turban, another a glued-on beard and a fez, yet another has black makeup and resembles a carol singer. Then the figure with the toy horse and whip reappears. Eventually, the older men with their enormous headdresses dance in pairs with the young men in dirndls, jumping with one knee raised, arms on hips<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a bit reminiscent of \u201cJump Jim Crow\u201d and the images of T. D. Rice dancing.<\/p>\n<p>After this carnivalesque arsenal of figures is introduced, the camera pans over the fantastically costumed procession, then cuts back into the action. Some figures spin in place, others dance or wrestle in pairs. At some point, the men with the towering headdresses bow<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>supported by the young men dressed as girls. Women appear only occasionally, unmasked, as companions of the procession. Interspersed throughout are shots of the snow-covered mountain landscape. The visual dramaturgy ties the masked figures to their idyllic surroundings. After a sharp cut, the footage turns to black and white and is shown from shifting angles. Some figures now resemble witches with brooms. At one point, a court scene with a verdict is shown.<\/p>\n<p>The silent film, which possesses a grainy texture, has no voice-over commentary, suggesting the images would speak for themselves. This 16-millimeter ethnographic documentary was produced around the turn of 1940. It depicts the Gasteiner Perchtenlauf<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a masked procession featuring stock characters from the Alpine region, occurring every four years as a house-to-house ritual, now recognized as part of UNESCO\u2019s World Cultural Heritage.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn332\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref332\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>332<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The nearly twelve-&#173;minute film was copyrighted in 1984 by the \u00d6sterreichisches Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr den wissenschaftlichen Film Wien (Austrian Federal Institute for Scientific Film Vienna) and is now accessible online via the \u00d6sterreichische Mediathek, the audiovisual archive of the Technisches Museum Wien.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn333\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref333\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>333<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Ostensibly capturing indigenous customs, the film carefully frames and focuses on the action, deliberately excluding any elements that might indicate the contemporary filming situation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn334\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref334\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>334<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The fade-ins of the snow-covered landscape similarly avoid revealing that, at the time of filming, Gastein had long become a popular tourist destination with associated infrastructure.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn335\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref335\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>335<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Clearly, the masks, figures, and their repertoire of movements were meant to appear as ritual forms untouched by modernity. At first glance, this seems entirely unrelated to the Thingspiele. The point of connection, however, lies in an understanding of performance not as drag, but as a cultic link to the dead within a suprahistorical community figure.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram.jpg\" alt=\"A black-and-white photo shows a Perchtenzug (Austrian mask procession) on a snow-covered slope.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"845\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7365\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram-300x181.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram-1024x618.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram-150x91.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram-768x464.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/30_Perchtenzug-Gasteiner-Tal-1940.-Nachlass-Richard-Wolfram-850x513.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><strong>Figure 30:<\/strong> Perchten procession, Gastein Valley, 1940. Salzburger Landesinstitut f\u00fcr Volkskunde (NSLA, rw_48-2).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Neither the film nor the accompanying idyllic photographs of the Perchten procession in the snowy landscape can simply be considered documents of ancient customs; rather, they are evidence of its National Socialist invention. They were produced against the backdrop of Austria\u2019s annexation, the so-called Anschluss, into the Nazi state and form part of the research project of Richard Wolfram, considered the founder of Austrian ethnology<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>of Volkskunde.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn336\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref336\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>336<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Wolfram began photographing the Gasteiner Perchtenlauf as early as 1936 and documented it again in 1940, 1944, and later in 1962.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn337\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref337\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>337<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In his habilitation thesis <em>Schwerttanz und M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em> (Sword dance and brotherhood), partially published by the German B\u00e4renreiter Verlag in 1936 and 1937, Wolfram argues that the Perchten procession, with its jumps and stamping dances, represents the ancient Germanic Wilde Jagd (Wild Hunt), and should thus be understood as a reenactment rather than mere masquerade. According to Wolfram, the Perchten procession evokes a ghostly army of fallen warriors led by the Germanic god Wotan. The Perchtenfrenzy was a magical rite of movement, he argues, emphasizing both performative and genealogical aspects.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn338\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref338\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>338<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In his interpretation, old Germanic legends have always been performed, not just narrated, and as manifestations of living customs they revive those who had died.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn339\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref339\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>339<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> For him, the blackened faces therefore explicitly mark the Perchten as deceased figures, distinguishing their appearances from mere masking practices.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn340\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref340\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>340<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> He thereby explicitly contests earlier interpretations that described Perchten processions as fertility or vegetation rites of pre-Christian origin,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn341\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref341\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>341<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> as well as contemporary readings of blackened faces within the context of globalized mass culture as racialized drag.<\/p>\n<p>Drawing on ethnological theories of brotherhood and male bonding (M\u00e4nnerbund), Wolfram interprets the blackening of the face as a means of erasing one\u2019s identifiability and thereby entering a suprahistorical warrior community.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn342\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref342\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>342<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Deliberately ignoring both contemporary blackface and Germany\u2019s colonial legacy, he thus redefines the black mask as the emblem of a Germanic warrior cult and its afterlife in a secret fraternity. This situates the blackened faces seen in contemporary Perchten processions within a traditional framework of combative masculinity presumed to be untouched by modernity.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn343\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref343\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>343<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In the absence of local Germanic sources, Wolfram turned to Tacitus, who had described Germanic tribes as \u201cindigenous.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn344\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref344\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>344<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Never having seen them himself, Tacitus linked the Germanic <em>Harii<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>who blackened their bodies in battle<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>to the trope of the army of the dead.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn345\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref345\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>345<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In Wolfram\u2019s tribalist interpretation, blackening the skin did not merely serve to impersonate the ancestors, but to embody them through mimesis. He buttressed this claim with all kinds of sources, including Book&#160;XIII of the <em>Historia Ecclesiastica<\/em> by Ordericus Vitalis, a Norman chronicler from the twelfth century, who describes a nocturnal apparition with \u201ctwo Ethiopians\u201d dragging along a massive torture pole.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn346\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref346\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>346<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Wolfram insisted that these accounts of a nocturnal \u201carmed band\u201d were not fantasies, but evidence of a mimetic reenactment of the Wild Hunt.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn347\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref347\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>347<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At the same time, he sought to shield this ritual repertoire from transcontinental references. He \u201cindigenized\u201d the \u201cEthiopians,\u201d casting their appearance within a thanatopolitical framework. <\/p>\n<p>Likewise, he ignored the obvious cross-dressing of the young Perchten in Gastein, linking the masked procession exclusively to martial dance as an embodiment of the army of the dead.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn348\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref348\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>348<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> By conjuring the dancing undead, Wolfram\u2019s ethnographic reading aligns with Euringer\u2019s <em>Totentanz<\/em>.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn349\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref349\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>349<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Yet unlike the mass theatrical staging of the community of the Volk in the Thingspiele, Wolfram treated \u201cGermanic customs\u201d as an indigenous revival of the dead. While the Thingspiele were propaganda tools for performatively becoming the national community, Wolfram\u2019s Volkskundeframed contemporary Alpine traditions as living proof of the Germanic roots of Austrian culture. Like the Thingspiele, National Socialist Volkskunde positions itself here as a countermodel to drag and its incorporation into carnivalesque modes of performance.<\/p>\n<p>However, Wolfram\u2019s invention of timeless customs, informed by dance research, was also distinctly modern.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn350\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref350\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>350<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At the turn of the century, the Viennese scholar Rudolf Much had already described an ancient Germanic world in his influential book <em>Deutsche Stammeskunde<\/em> (German tribal studies).<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn351\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref351\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>351<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Wolfram, however, gave his assertions a performative twist, transposing the nineteenth-century German national mythizations of Perchten legends into the twentieth century tale of actual nocturnal reenactments and linking them to contemporaneous studies of secret brotherhoods (M\u00e4nnerbund-Forschung).<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn352\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref352\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>352<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> This shift in perspective within Volkskunde coincided with the Nazis\u2019 institutionalization of theater studies, as a discipline that was also emancipating itself from German philology and that served the Ministry of Propaganda in developing mass theatrical modes of surrogate experience.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn353\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref353\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>353<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Like the theater studies of his day, Wolfram thus anticipated the performative turn in recent research on mimesis and performativity<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn354\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref354\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>354<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>albeit with the aim of fabulating a Germanic homosocial, militaristic revival of the dead.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn355\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref355\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>355<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Claiming blood and soil, he interpreted the masked Perchten dancers and their movement repertoire as an embodied archive of the Wild Hunt.<\/p>\n<p>Wolfram thus engaged in speculative thinking to address gaps in the archival record, aiming to decreolize the mask repertoire, as we might say, through ethnological dance research. What today appears as a scientifically untenable Germano-fiction<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a rather wild fusion of people and landscape<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was deeply complicit in the political violence of its time. Wolfram\u2019s treatment of sources was shaped by his research environment and was emblematic of the instrumentalization of ethnologically validated origin stories. While his habilitation thesis had been published in Germany before the Anschluss of Austria, Wolfram\u2019s film officially served Nazi government policy. His \u201cdocumentation\u201d of the Perchten in the Gastein Valley, in the Austrian Alpine Pongau region, was produced two years after Austria\u2019s integration into the Nazi state and one year after the Nazi regime banned the Jewish population from wearing the dirndl and other traditional garments.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn356\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref356\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>356<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The film described at the beginning of this chapter was also part of a large-scale field research project on customs in the Salzburg region, directed by Reichsf\u00fchrer SS&#160;Heinrich Himmler and conducted in cooperation with the police. The Alpine region on the German-Austrian border held particular significance for the propagandistic claim of a shared Austrian-German heritage, which countered the clerical-fascist policies of the Austrian corporatist state that had prevailed until 1938. The Catholic Church had long branded the Perchten processions as pagan rituals and sought to regulate their potential transformation into peasant uprisings. Wolfram\u2019s research thus supported the anticlerical Nazi agenda directed against Austria\u2019s rival fascism.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn357\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref357\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>357<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The Perchten film was produced within the framework of the Lehr- und Forschungsst\u00e4tte f\u00fcr Germanisch-Deutsche Volkskunde (Teaching and Research Center for Germanic-German Ethnology\/Tribal Studies) founded in Salzburg in 1938 as part of the SS-Forschungsgemeinschaft Deutsches Ahnenerbe (SS&#160;Research Association for German Ancestral Heritage).<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn358\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref358\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>358<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Wolfram, a party member since 1932 and already well-networked during the years when the Austrian NSDAP had been outlawed (1933<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>1938), was appointed head of the center after the Anschluss; he received financial backing, and his work was classified as important to the war effort. In 1939, he was promoted to professor at the University of Vienna. Within the context of his work for the SS-Ahnenerbe, his habilitation thesis appears in retrospect as a latent legitimation of the so-called Schutzstaffel, the SS as a paramilitary \u201csecurity\u201d organization: the blackened bodies he describes in <em>Schwerttanz<\/em> <em>und<\/em> <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em> could be read in relation to the black SS uniforms adorned with skull and crossbones emblems, that is, as a continuation of the black army of the dead.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn359\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref359\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>359<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> That Wolfram reformulated earlier M\u00e4nnerbund theories from the turn of the century and Germanized ethnographic ideas originally linked to the tropics<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>thus \u201cindigenizing\u201d them<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>accordingly assumed a specific political function with regard to the most murderous of Nazi organizations.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn360\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref360\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>360<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> He de-eroticized homosocial community myths, aligning them with the image of a heteronormative paramilitary elite tasked with securing and protecting the entire Volksgemeinschaft.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn361\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref361\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>361<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Wolfram\u2019s research, which distinguished the cross-dressing of the Perchten from contemporary drag, gender bending, and blackface, thus became a weapon on multiple fronts.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before the collapse of the regime, black-masked Schiachperchten, that is, ugly-masked Perchten, threw themselves to the ground before a Gauleiter<em>.<\/em><span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn362\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref362\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>362<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>On closer inspection, Wolfram\u2019s brand of Volkskunde, however, was more directly complicit in the terror of the Nazi regime. While the Perchten were portrayed as descendants of the ancient Germanic tribes, Wolfram, who was rehabilitated in 1954, appears to have been involved not only in art theft and resettlement operations, but also in the murderous policies of the SS. When he failed to \u201creeducate\u201d Norwegian students at the Sennheim training camp in Alsace, he had them deported to the Buchenwald concentration camp, where fifty of them were subjected to medical experiments and where &#173;prisoners were killed through the most brutal forced labor.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn363\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref363\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>363<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> This episode reveals the vicious underside of Wolfram\u2019s academic entanglement with the SS, whose Totenkopfstandarten were tasked with organizing concentration and extermination camps and conducting human experimentation. Read as a case study, Wolfram\u2019s work uncannily exemplifies the politicality embedded in academic fantasies of indigeneity.<\/p>\n<p>This is also evident in Wolfram\u2019s justification of irregular jurisdiction, which characterizes the Thingspiele, as well. <em>Schwerttanz und M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em> emphasized the link between masked processions and quasi-judicial stagings. Wolfram thus associated the Perchten<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as well as the Alpine Krampus runs around December&#160;6, in which adolescent men wearing dark wooden masks and fur costumes parade from house to house<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>with rural, boisterous reprimand courts of peasant secret societies. Although he mentions neither the Thingspiele nor the SS, his research can in fact be related to the legitimation of the Nazi regime\u2019s production of a permanent state of exception.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn364\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref364\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>364<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Wolfram used his \u201cfolklife studies\u201d to legitimize extralegal jurisdictions, and thereby also the contemporary policy of irregular governance (Ma\u00dfnahmenpolitik), invoking what he called the unpredictable Janus face of the customs described in <em>Schwerttanz und M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn365\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref365\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>365<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Wolfram justified, for instance, the right to steal during Heischeg\u00e4nge, that is, ritual soliciting processions. Reading these performative practices as traditional moral courts or playful inspections of household cleanliness, he claimed that the Heischeg\u00e4nge lived on in playful form in the Perchtenlauf and in charivaris<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>legitimizing how gangs of men would break into houses and, for instance, \u201cdisguised as Jews,\u201d steal something or engage in \u201cbloody brawls.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn366\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref366\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>366<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Hence he did not associate these appearances with acts of private revenge, sexual harassment, or local lynching under the cover of masked, noisy parades, but rather saw them as forms of communal moral enforcement. Accordingly, he further situated these processions within the framework of political uprisings for local order. In this sense, he described the vigilante public shaming procession known as Haberfeldtreiben in the Bavarian town of Miesbach<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a secret peasant court of rebuke from 1863 that some had still sought to revive in 1919<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as well as the Gastein Perchten as political performances.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn367\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref367\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>367<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> And he interpreted these masked processions as protests against the corruption of those in power, legitimized by age-old customs. The peasant secret society remained entirely impenetrable to the authorities, Wolfram claimed in reference to the Haberfeldtreiben, as long as the custom was upheld with its traditional rigor.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn368\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref368\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>368<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The Gastein Perchtenlauf that Wolfram filmed, however, also draws on the carnivalization of courtly pageantry. On closer inspection these borrowings reveal themselves as performative transpositions that contradict Wolfram\u2019s reading. Herod and his wife, Roman soldiers, and fanfares<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>figures featured in the Gastein masquerade shot by Wolfram<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>are today seen as a blend of St. Nicholas plays and carnival satire.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn369\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref369\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>369<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The Gastein Krampus runs are likewise connected to this tradition. In these events, masked young men visit their fellow villagers to scold them, distribute small gifts, and demand schnapps in return. At the end of these rituals<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>reminiscent of plays, in which baby Jesus was traditionally, and until recently, performed by men dressed as young girls<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the Kramperl are finally unleashed: increasingly drunken devil figures clad in fur costumes and grotesque dark wooden masks. Krampus runs, associated with winter customs during the \u201cdead\u201d Rauh- or Gl\u00f6cklern\u00e4chte<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Twelfth Night, or masked bell-runner night<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>carry with them a parody of prevailing justice. As carnivalesque performances, they do indeed echo independent jurisdictions that often served to violently enforce traditional norms under the protection of masks.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn370\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref370\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>370<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> On the one hand, such performances recall earlier uprisings against authority; on the other, they invoke the social, and at times terroristic, disciplining historically associated with male-adolescent parades<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>targeted at young girls or \u201cfallen\u201d women and, in certain instances, at the Jewish or Protestant population.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn371\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref371\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>371<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The reference to the Gastein Perchten run also highlights what Wolfram\u2019s reading of masked states of exception actively represses: the entanglement of diverse performative techniques, whose origins cannot be traced as neatly as <em>Schwerttanz und M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em> implies<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>particularly in light of histories of forced migration. In their regionally adapted forms of performance, continually responding to local conditions, the Perchten testify to long-distance trade routes and networks (via old pack trails and mountain passes reaching as far as Venice); to experiences of flight and expulsion; to rural carnivalesque parodies of courtly spectacles; and to the citation of modern mass culture. They are less domestic than nomadic figurations.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928.jpg\" alt=\"A black-and-white drawing shows a room where Pinzgauer Tresterer (Alpine maskers) in traditional costumes with long ribbons on their headdresses are dancing and jumping before spectators.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"870\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7397\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928-300x186.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928-1024x636.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928-150x93.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928-768x477.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/31_Pinzgauer-Tresterer-undatiert-vor-1928-850x528.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><strong>Figure 31:<\/strong> Pinzgauer Tresterer, undated. \u00d6sterreichisches Volkskundemuseum, Vienna (CC PDM 1.0).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In the case of the neighboring Pinzgauer Tresterer<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a variant of Perchtentum distinguished by feathered crowns and long ribboned headdresses<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>carnival elements are joined by echoes of nineteenth-century Amerindian stereotypes.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn372\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref372\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>372<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Photographs such as the one above taken before National Socialism and collected by \u00d6sterreichisches Volkskundemuseum clearly show, just as historical sources indicate, what Ignaz K\u00fcrsinger noted in 1841: \u201cihre Kleidung und Tanz erinnerte mich lebhaft an die T\u00e4nze der Indianer, wie ich sie in Bildern sah\u201d (\u201cTheir clothing and dance reminded me vividly of the dances of the Indians as I saw them in pictures\u201d).<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn373\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref373\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>373<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> K\u00fcrsinger continues by emphasizing their resemblance to the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">harlequin<\/span>: <\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">Sie ziehen von Pfarre zu Pfarre, begr\u00fcssen die besseren H\u00e4user, so ihnen die M\u00fche des Tanzes mit Branntwein und Brod gelohnt wird, und kehren dann friedlich wieder zu ihren Arbeiten zur\u00fcck. Alt und Jung, Gro\u00df und Klein l\u00e4uft diesem uralten Volks-Schauspiele zu, weidet sich fr\u00f6hlich an den Spr\u00fcngen der Tresterer, freuet sich \u00fcber die Berchten und belachet den Hanswurst.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn374\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref374\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>374<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">They travel from parish to parish, greeting the better-off households<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>provided the effort of dancing is repaid with brandy and bread<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>before peacefully returning to their work. People of all ages and sizes gather for this time-honored folk play, happily taking pleasure in the Tresterer\u2019s jumps, cheering the Berchten, and laughing at the Hanswurst.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The Perchten also cite an amalgam of earlier practices, which Wolfram overwrites, thereby obscuring performative entanglements. The Viennese ethnographer Wilhelm Hein, by contrast, had already asserted in the nineteenth century:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">Die gro\u00dfe Aehnlichkeit dieser Masken in Form und Auffassung mit den Tanz-, Beschw\u00f6rungs- und Teufelslarven verschiedener V\u00f6lker, verleiht ihnen nicht blo\u00df \u00f6sterreichische und mitteleurop\u00e4ische volks&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;kundliche Bedeutung, sondern stellt sie in eine Linie mit jenen Erzeugnissen, in welchen sich allerorts der Menschengeist in gleicher Weise offenbart; sie bilden daher ein unentbehrliches Glied in der Gesammtheit der Volksvermummungen, wie sie bei allen V\u00f6lkern des Erdballs ge\u00fcbt werden.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn375\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref375\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>375<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">The strong resemblance these masks bear in both form and conception to the dance, invocation, and devil masks of various peoples not only lends them ethnographic significance in the context of Austria and Central Europe, but also aligns them with those cultural forms in which the human spirit reveals itself in the same way everywhere; they thus form an indispensable link in the totality of folk masquerade as practiced by all the peoples of the world.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Even in Wolfram\u2019s original book manuscript, preserved in his papers at the Salzburger Landesinstitut f\u00fcr Volkskunde, there are recurring echoes of parallels between his ostensibly Germanic field research and African ethnology. Moreover, in the book version released in three installments, which for unexplained reasons breaks off mid-text without the remainder being published, he notes that his research on the sword dance reminded him of African step dancing.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn376\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref376\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>376<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Contemporary scholarship traces the Perchten repertoire back to medieval jumping processions, prop dances performed by craftsmen, or courtly morris dances,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn377\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref377\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>377<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> pointing to comparable practices throughout Europe. This applies particularly to the so-called Sch\u00f6nperchten, that is, the beautiful Perchten, with their towering caps: older men accompanied by their \u201cGsellinnen\u201d (\u201cfemale companions\u201d)<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>boys dressed as girls, referred to as \u201csekundierende Nacht\u00e4nzer\u201d (\u201cseconding dancers\u201d). As shown in Wolfram\u2019s film, they bow to the houses they pass. This cites performances of the Salzburg court, where the Venetian carnival<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>internationally influential around 1600<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was celebrated as part of a spectacular Baroque urban cultural politics, intended among other things to channel street carnival.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn378\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref378\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>378<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Nevertheless, bans on masks and court edicts of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>measures aimed not least at cross-dressing and the carnivalization of gender<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>also indicate the carnivalization of courtly and liturgical performances from below. Astrid Kusser describes the Cake Walk as a parodic creolization of European social dances by those enslaved on the plantation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn379\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref379\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>379<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The Alpine peasants\u2019 quotation of courtly dances, carnivalesque masked festivals, and <em>commedia <\/em>performances from the Salzburg court into the kinaesthetic jumping repertoire of the Perchten can be seen as distantly related.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn380\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref380\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>380<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> <\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022.jpg\" alt=\"A color photo shows seven people in traditional Krampus and Nikolaus costumes standing before snow-covered mountains.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1051\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7398\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022-1024x769.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022-768x577.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/32_Krampuslauf-Gastein-2022-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><strong>Figure 32:<\/strong> Krampus run, Gastein 2022, Bassetti Pass. Photo: Evelyn Annu\u00df.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The intertwined history of performative citation also recalls long-forgotten local contexts of violence. Some figures and masks<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>such as the towering table caps of the Sch\u00f6nperchten<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>are today attributed to Tyrolean customs. Their migration to the Gastein Valley, however, dates back to the expulsion of the Protestant population from the Salzburg region by the Catholic Church in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The now \u201ccleansed\u201d Gastein Valley was repopulated with laborers from Tyrol, who brought the Perchten caps with them and gradually transformed them into oversized forms.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn381\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref381\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>381<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Appearances of figures such as Frau Perchta and the so-called Schnabelperchten can likewise be read as performative transpositions of plague narratives; the \u201clong nose\u201d of the Perchta, documented as early as the fourteenth century, also references the plague doctors\u2019 medical masks<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>though this connection is barely legible today. Incorporated into the costume repertoire of the Venetian carnival, these masks made their way to the Salzburg court and from there, apparently, into rural winter processions.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn382\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref382\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>382<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Even the witch figures evoke the often gendered persecutions tied to plague-related fears.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn383\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref383\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>383<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Accordingly, the masks depicted in Wolfram\u2019s film can be linked to both earlier and contemporary political violence.<\/p>\n<p>In the context of Wolfram\u2019s SS affiliation, the Germanized and militarized Perchten were understood as pre-Nazi courts of reprimand<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>beyond the reach of state control and regulation. At the same time, Wolfram sought to purge the comic-carnivalesque elements<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>expelling, as it were, the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">harlequin<\/span>, with all its grotesque entourage and all its dragging. In the context of his activities in Salzburg for the SS-Ahnenerbe, Wolfram instrumentalized the Perchten as a latent, genealogical legitimation of Nazi state terror prior to its collapse in 1945, and as an ethnonationalistically indigenized counterfigure to the nomad. Read against the grain, this instrumentalization underscores the microfascist potential of carnivalesque performance,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn384\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref384\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>384<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> something that remains visible in other contexts today. Through the Nazi reception of the Perchten, the terroristic potential of masked, anonymous parades comes into play<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>not as expressions of traditional jurisdiction, the Thing, so to speak, but as the possible violent flipside of carnivalesque transgression. Despite the existence of regional resistance to the Nazis,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn385\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref385\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>385<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Wolfram\u2019s readings of these performances provoke questions about the diverse ways in which mimesis can be politically mobilized.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">*<\/p>\n<p>From 1941 onward, theatrical condemnations of the nomadic in propaganda, art, and scholarship<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>accompanied by genealogical fabulations<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>helped &#173;legitimize the industrial extermination of those who had been marked as tribe&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;&#173;less, impure, dirty, and lacking primordial affiliation to blood and soil<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>in other words, as always already in drag. Against the backdrop of current and often competing debates on antisemitism and colonial racism, this chapter has sought to analyze the violent equations of figures of \u201cthe Other.\u201d In the case of Nazism, the dangers of essentializing, territorializing thinking become starkly apparent. Eva Braun\u2019s antisemitically charged photograph in blackface-drag, the exoticism of <em>Ki sua heli<\/em>, the performative invention of the Volksgemeinschaft in propaganda theater, and the legitimation of the Germanic Thing lineage through Volkskunde<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the Nazi materials assembled in this chapter<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>testify to diverse strategies of fascist decreolization, to a fictive process of \u201cdedragging,\u201d so to speak. Beyond the antisemitic charge of blackface, and its reading as a modern figure of globalization, Nazi representations of \u201cAfrican natives\u201d served to banish the contemporary creolization of the world<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>epitomized in the figure of the nomad<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>through a German project of \u201cdebarbarization.\u201d What emerges here are both differentiated forms of representational racism and their complementary role in the ideological construction of blood and soil<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as well as their inverse: the ethnonationalist claim of autochthony through figurations of the Volksgemeinschaft in the Thingspiel, and the justification of extralegal, supposedly indigenous jurisdiction through the expulsion of carnivalesque performativity in Volkskunde. These forms of propaganda, which were by no means uniformly effective, perished with the end of the regime at the latest. Yet the modes and figures of thought embedded in them continue to reappear elsewhere in new forms.<\/p>\n<p>An analysis of the Nazi era, in particular, makes clear which of these need to be reexamined today<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and to what extent the debate around mimetic messi&#173;ness demands greater precision. The political right is increasingly contributing to the dismantling of international law and legal protections for refugees<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>legal frameworks established in direct response to Nazi terror after 1945<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>through its appeals to majoritarian identitarianism. This chapter, by contrast, employs historiography to mediate between the increasingly siloed debates on antisemitism and colonialism. In this context, Baker\u2019s dance, along with Benjamin\u2019s and Kafka\u2019s understandings of language, serve as examples that not only recall the figure of nomadic schlepping-along in relation to creolized, queer cultural techniques, but also foreground a figure of <em>dirty dragging<\/em> which points toward possible future alliances.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn386\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref386\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>386<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> <\/p>\n<h4>Endnotes<\/h4>\n<hr>\n<ol start=\"307\">\n<li id=\"fn307\">\n<p>On the Thingspiel, see Annu\u00df, <em>Volksschule, <\/em>2019 (the section on Kurt Heynicke\u2019s <em>Der Weg ins Reich <\/em>contained here is the continuation of a longer chapter: 266<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>278); Stommer, <em>Die inszenierte Volksgemeinschaft, <\/em>1985. The term \u201cThing,\u201d a transliteration of \u201cconcilium,\u201d comes from contemporary translations of Tacitus and serves the Germanized branding of the Nazi mass spectacles.<a href=\"#fnref307\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn308\">\n<p>See Roach, <em>Cities, <\/em>1996. <a href=\"#fnref308\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn309\">\n<p>See Annu\u00df, \u201cQuoting Passion Aesthetics,\u201d 2023.<a href=\"#fnref309\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn310\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 28. See also Annu\u00df, \u201cEnvironnement et communaut\u00e9 nationale,\u201d 2024.<a href=\"#fnref310\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn311\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 28. In German: \u201cEin Tanz der lebendig Toten und der er&#173;&#173;weckten Muskoten.\u201d<a href=\"#fnref311\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn312\">\n<p>Benjamin, \u201cExperience and Poverty,\u201d 2005. 731<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>732. In German: \u201cWas sich dann 10 Jahre danach in der Flut der Kriegsb\u00fccher ergossen hat, war alles andere als Erfahrung, die vom Mund zum Ohr str\u00f6mt.\u201d Benjamin, \u201cErfahrung und Armut,\u201d II.1, 1991: 214.<a href=\"#fnref312\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn313\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Tote<\/em>ntanz, 1935: 15<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>16.<a href=\"#fnref313\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn314\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 15<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>16.<a href=\"#fnref314\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn315\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 16.<a href=\"#fnref315\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn316\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 16.<a href=\"#fnref316\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn317\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 16. <a href=\"#fnref317\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn318\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 18.<a href=\"#fnref318\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn319\">\n<p>Euringer, Totentanz, 1935: 23. In the case of the colonial soldiers, Euringer lets the meter stumble, while he ascribes a march-like rhythm to the German martyrs. <a href=\"#fnref319\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn320\">\n<p>Euringer thus does not follow the common distinction between the figure of the \u201cloyal Askari\u201d and the personification of \u201cblack shame\u201d; see Lewerenz, <em>Die Deutsche Afrika-Schau<\/em>, 2006, 132<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>136. Bruno Sch\u00f6nlank, <em>Der gespaltene Mensch<\/em>, 1927, provides the countermodel to the revisionist colonial discourse in the German-language theater of the Weimar period.<a href=\"#fnref320\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn321\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz<\/em>, 1935: 32; on the figure of the nameless soldier: 27; see also Euringer\u2019s <em>Deutsche Passion, <\/em>1934<em>.<\/em><a href=\"#fnref321\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn322\">\n<p>Euringer, <em>Totentanz, <\/em>1935: 25.<a href=\"#fnref322\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn323\">\n<p>For more details, see Annu\u00df, <em>Volksschule, <\/em>2019: 251<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>280. The corporatist construct of the Volksgemeinschaft was envisioned to comprise 90 combatants (men and women), 450 main chorus members, and 30 followers (<em>Mitl\u00e4ufer<\/em>); see Heynicke, <em>Der Weg ins Reich, <\/em>1935: 5. On the Nazi reception, see Braum\u00fcller, \u201cKurt Heynicke,\u201d 1935.<a href=\"#fnref323\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn324\">\n<p>Heynicke, <em>Der Weg ins Reich, <\/em>1935: 13. See Ihering, \u201cAuf der Thingst\u00e4tte,\u201d 1935.<a href=\"#fnref324\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn325\">\n<p>See R\u00f6hr, \u201cReichsfestspiele Heidelberg,\u201d 1935.<a href=\"#fnref325\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn326\">\n<p>See Heynicke, <em>Der Weg ins Reich, <\/em>1935: 12.<a href=\"#fnref326\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn327\">\n<p>Heynicke writes: \u201cDer Schlu\u00df des Abmarschliedes rauscht noch einmal zwingend auf. Wie von ihm gezogen, marschieren die Mitl\u00e4ufer dem Hauptchor nach\u201d; in English: \u201cThe end of the marching-off song once again roars out compellingly. As if pulled by it, the followers march after the main choir.\u201d See <em>Der Weg ins Reich, <\/em>1935: 38.<a href=\"#fnref327\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn328\">\n<p>In German: \u201cgeschafft,\/Geschuftet, verloren, gewonnen, errafft.\u201d Heynicke, <em>Der Weg ins Reich, <\/em>1935: 15. The figure of the returning engineer is an updated <em>Faust II <\/em>quotation. Heynicke turns Goethe\u2019s plot into a happy ending and reinforces its latent colonial reference; on <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Faust<\/span> as entrepreneur and colonizer, see Hegemann, \u201cMit welcher Freude,\u201d 2017; J\u00e4ger, <em>Fausts Kolonie<\/em>, 2011; <em>Goethe\u2019s \u201cFaust,\u201d <\/em>2021. <a href=\"#fnref328\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn329\">\n<p>On the rejection of cultic rituals after the consolidation of the state apparatus, see Hitler\u2019s <em>Kulturrede <\/em>at the Congress of the Nuremberg Party Rally on September 6, 1938, quoted in Domarus, <em>Hitler<\/em>, 1988, 1: 892<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>894.<a href=\"#fnref329\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn330\">\n<p>On the concept of externalization, see Lessenich, <em>Neben uns<\/em>, 2016. On the appropriation of mass ornaments by the Nazis, who used them to ideologically communitize the crowd from a supposed F\u00fchrer perspective rather than to represent the national community, see Annu\u00df, <em>Volksschule<\/em>, 2019, 416<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>437.<a href=\"#fnref330\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn331\">\n<p>Kracauer, <em>The Mass Ornament<\/em>, 1995, 84. In German: \u201c<em>Leerform<\/em> des Kults.\u201d Kracauer, <em>Ornament der Masse<\/em>, 1977: 61. <a href=\"#fnref331\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn332\">\n<p>For the synonymous use of <em>Perchten<\/em> and masks in historical sources, see Kammerhofer-&#173;Aggermann, <em>Perchtenlaufen<\/em>, 2002. For an overview of today\u2019s arsenal of figures, see the Gastein Perchten website: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gasteinerperchten.com\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.gasteinerperchten.com<\/span><\/a>, accessed September&#160;12, <br \/>2024. Perchten runs were first reinvented in the nineteenth century in the context of the rural exodus of the time, and then again from the 1960s onward in the course of mass tourism developments in urban areas; on the function of this invention of &#173;tradition (Hobsbawm, 1996), see Kammerhofer-Aggermann, \u201cKramperl,\u201d 2002; \u201cPro&#173;zess,\u201d 2002; K\u00f6stlin, \u201cBr\u00e4uche,\u201d 2002. See also the descriptions by Adrian, \u201cPerchtenlauf,\u201d 2002 (originally published in 1948), and Andr\u00e9e-Eysn, \u201cDie Perchten,\u201d 1905.<a href=\"#fnref332\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn333\">\n<p>The footage is dated January&#160;7, 1940. The credits, added later by the \u00d6sterreichisches Bundesinstitut f\u00fcr den wissenschaftlichen Film Wien, name Richard Wolfram as the author and cameraman; after his official denazification, he dedicated a merely descriptive commentary to this \u201cstrong tradition\u201d of Perchten: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mediathek.at\/katalogsuche\/suche\/detail\/?pool=BWEB&amp;uid=018AA5A1-1B9-01FCE-00000484-0189A3E5&amp;cHash=cc97945d539ffa82f91c86a988dd308f\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.mediathek.at\/katalogsuche\/suche\/detail\/?pool=BWEB&amp;uid=018AA5A1-1B9-01FCE-00000484-0189A3E5&amp;cHash=cc97945d539ffa82f91c86a988dd308f<\/span><\/a>; 11:39, C 1984 editing Lisl Waltner, \u00d6sterreichische Mediathek, Technisches Museum Wien; accessed September&#160;12, 2024.<a href=\"#fnref333\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn334\">\n<p>On the fictionality of the documentary, see Sontag, \u201cFascinating Fascism<em>,<\/em>\u201d1981; Balke et al., <em>Durchbrochene Ordnungen, <\/em>2020.<a href=\"#fnref334\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn335\">\n<p>For the history of Gastein, which lies on an Alpine pack trail leading to Venice and has been widely connected for centuries through mining and its role as a spa, see Gruber, <em>\u00dcber 1000 Jahre<\/em>, 2020. Today\u2019s genetic studies of bone finds point to early historical migratory movements from Iran via the southern Russian steppe to Gastein (see p. 8).<a href=\"#fnref335\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn336\">\n<p>On the history of German-Austrian ethnography (Volkskunde) and Wolfram\u2019s role, see Bockhorn, \u201cBrauchtumsaufnahme,\u201d 2002; \u201cVon Ritualen,\u201d 1994; H\u00f6ck, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 2019; Johler, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 2021; Ottenbacher, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 1989. Wolfram\u2019s papers are held<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>apparently having been purged by Wolfram himself of most Nazi traces<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>in the Salzburger Landesinstitut f\u00fcr Volkskunde (SLIVK, NRW); see Kammerhofer-Aggermann, \u201cMythen,\u201d 2020: 120. Wolfram\u2019s papers also contain the complete manuscript of the only partially published habilitation thesis <em>Schwerttanz und M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em> (SLIVK, NRW, Manuskripte 1998-N, 2000-N, pp. 1<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>350 of 639).<a href=\"#fnref336\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn337\">\n<p>For the numerous photographs that have not been systematically catalogued, see Greger, \u201cZum Bildnachlass von Richard Wolfram,\u201d 2022; Bleyer, \u201cPerchtenaufnahmen,\u201d 2002; Bockhorn, \u201cBrauchtumsaufnahme,\u201d 2002.<a href=\"#fnref337\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn338\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 290. On his later Perchten research, see Wolfram, \u201cPercht und Perchtengestalten,\u201d 1979.<a href=\"#fnref338\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn339\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 258.<a href=\"#fnref339\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn340\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 291.<a href=\"#fnref340\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn341\">\n<p>See for example Adrian, <em>Von Salzburger Sitt\u2019 und Brauch, <\/em>1924<em>. <\/em><a href=\"#fnref341\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn342\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 104.<a href=\"#fnref342\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn343\">\n<p>The Krampus and Perchten exhibits in the Salzburger Weihnachtsmuseum from around 1900, which are reminiscent of minstrel shows, bear witness to the contrary; see, for example, the Perchten figurines with Afro hairstyles depicted in Gockerell, <em>Weihnachtszeit<\/em>, 2000: 59, 63.<a href=\"#fnref343\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn344\">\n<p>On the \u201cGermanos indigenas,\u201d see Tacitus, <em>Germania, <\/em>1932: 14; with reference to the term \u201cThing\u201d in Ronge\u2019s translation to German: 23. Geschiere, <em>Perils of Belonging, <\/em>2009, describes the pitfalls of the thought figure of the indigenous today. <a href=\"#fnref344\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn345\">\n<p>See Tacitus, <em>Germany and Its Tribes<\/em>, chapter 43: \u201cThe Harii, besides being superior in strength to the tribes just enumerated, savage as they are, make the most of their natural ferocity by the help of art and opportunity. Their shields are black, their bodies dyed. They choose dark nights for battle, and, by the dread and gloomy aspect of their death-like host, strike terror into the foe, who can never confront their strange and almost infernal appearance. For in all battles it is the eye which is first vanquished.\u201d Tacitus, <em>Complete Works of Tacitus<\/em>, 1942, translated by Alfred John Church, quoted from Perseus Digital Library, <a href=\"http:\/\/data.perseus.org\/citations\/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002.perseus-eng1:43\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/data.perseus.org\/citations\/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002.perseus-eng1:43<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#fnref345\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn346\">\n<p>Vitalis, \u201cEcclesiaesticae,\u201d 1855; cited in Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 256.<a href=\"#fnref346\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn347\">\n<p>Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 258. Corresponding approaches can be found in the Austrian medievalist Otto H\u00f6fler, who taught at German universities during the Nazi era, worked for the SS-Forschungsgemeinschaft Deutsches Ahnenerbe, and undertook field research with Wolfram (<em>Kultische Geheimb\u00fcnde<\/em>, 1934, on 45); and in theater studies with Robert Stumpfl, <em>Kultspiele<\/em>, 1936.<a href=\"#fnref347\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn348\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 278. <a href=\"#fnref348\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn349\">\n<p>Like Euringer in his <em>Totentanz<\/em>, Wolfram continued to attack jazz in his post-Nazi research as a chaotic, unchained antithesis to his Old World European dance tradition; see <em>Volkst\u00e4nze<\/em>, 1951. Even during the Nazi era, Wolfram interpreted the <em>Schwerttanz<\/em>, a folk dance performed by men with weapons, as an \u201cancient\u201d rural, fraternal ritual custom; see <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em>, 1936\/37, 45; on the <em>Totentanz<\/em> as Germanic heritage, 112.<a href=\"#fnref349\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn350\">\n<p>With regard to the focus on performativity, studies of Nazi theater and performance studies align; see Annu\u00df, \u201cWollt ihr die totale Theaterwissenschaft,\u201d 2016.<a href=\"#fnref350\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn351\">\n<p>See Much, <em>Stammeskunde, <\/em>1900.<a href=\"#fnref351\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn352\">\n<p>See Johler, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 2021.<a href=\"#fnref352\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn353\">\n<p>In 1955, Wolfram gave a lecture on <em>Sword Dancing and the<\/em> <em>M\u00e4nnerbund<\/em> at the University of Cologne, where the initiator of the <em>Thing<\/em> propaganda, Carl Niessen, was head of the Institute of Theater Studies and the ethnologically oriented Theaterhistorische Sammlungen. It was apparently expected that he could contribute to Wolfram\u2019s rehabilitation; on the connection between Wolfram and Niessen, see H\u00f6ck, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 2019: 515. On Niessen, see Probst, <em>Objekte<\/em>, 2023.<a href=\"#fnref353\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn354\">\n<p>On mimesis, see Balke, \u201c\u00c4hnlichkeit und Entstellung,\u201d 2015; \u201cMimesis und Figura,\u201d 2016; <em>Mimesis zur Einf\u00fchrung, <\/em>2018; Balke and Linseisen, <em>Mimesis Expanded, <\/em>2022; on movement repertoire, Schneider, \u201cPerformance Remains Again,\u201d 2012; Taylor, <em>The Archive and the Repertoire, <\/em>2003.<a href=\"#fnref354\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn355\">\n<p>See Mbembe on the tremendous work of fabrication bound up with the European Enlightenment and its colonial flipside: \u201cThe expansion of the European spatial horizon, then, went hand in hand with a division and shrinking of the historical and cultural imagination and, in certain cases, a relative closing of the mind.\u201d <em>Critique of Black Reason<\/em>, 2017, 17.<a href=\"#fnref355\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn356\">\n<p>On the antisemitic Nazi ban on traditional costume (Trachtenverbot) in 1938, see Kerschbaumer, \u201cOrganisiertes Heimatbrauchtum,\u201d 1996: 126; \u201cRekonstruktion,\u201d 1996: 294. On the transformation of traditional costume into a folkloristically legitimized Nazi weapon of exclusion, see Nikitsch, \u201cTracht,\u201d 2019. Schurtz reads traditional costume in the nineteenth century as a badge of gender and class; see <em>Philosophie der Tracht<\/em>, 1891: 5.<a href=\"#fnref356\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn357\">\n<p>See Tal\u00f3s, <em>Austrofaschismus<\/em>, 2005, and <em>Das austrofaschistische Herrschaftssystem<\/em>, 2013. Although the Perchten runs were repeatedly banned by the Catholic Church, after 1938 they were popularly linked to the expulsion of the Protestant population from the Salzburg region between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries and thus mobilized for Nazi propaganda. See also Eberhard Wolfgang M\u00f6ller\u2019s <em>Frankenburger W\u00fcrfelspiel<\/em>, first performed in 1936 as part of the cultural program for the Olympic Games in Berlin, for similar propaganda claims to peasant uprisings; see Annu\u00df, <em>Volksschule<\/em>, 2019: 345<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>388. On the differing Austrian reception of the <em>Thing<\/em> after the Anschlussin 1938, see Annu\u00df, \u201cThingspielen in \u00d6sterreich,\u201d 2017.<a href=\"#fnref357\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn358\">\n<p>See Johler, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 2021: 1312, 1317. On the \u201cSS-Ahnenerbe\u201d as an umbrella organization for all kinds of obscure and occult positions, see Kater, <em>Das \u201cAhnenerbe,\u201d<\/em> 2006.<a href=\"#fnref358\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn359\">\n<p>On the history of SS uniforms and their citation of paramilitary Freikorps, see chapters 8 and 9 in Diehl, <em>Macht, <\/em>2005; Ruda, <em>Totenkopf, <\/em>2023: 327<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>415.<a href=\"#fnref359\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn360\">\n<p>On the ethnological invention of M\u00e4nnerb\u00fcnde around 1900, see Schurtz, <em>Altersklassen, <\/em>1902: 261, 264; <em>Urgeschichte, <\/em>1900: 110<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>115; in the Austrian research context, see Much, <em>Deutsche Stammeskunde, <\/em>1900. For a critique of studies on M\u00e4nnerb\u00fcnde as a symptom of changing gender relations around the turn of the century, see Brunotte, <em>Zwischen Eros<\/em>, 2004; Bruns, <em>Politik des Eros, <\/em>2008\/<em>Politics of Eros<\/em>, 2011; Treiblmayr, \u201cM\u00e4nnerb\u00fcnde,\u201d 2010; V\u00f6lger and von Welck, <em>M\u00e4nnerbande, <\/em>1990. <a href=\"#fnref360\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn361\">\n<p>On Himmler\u2019s position, which stands in contrast to Alfred B\u00e4umler\u2019s publications related to the Rosenberg faction, see Winter, \u201cSippengemeinschaft,\u201d 2013. On the differentiation and changeability of National Socialist masculinities, see Connell, \u201cMasculinity and Nazism,\u201d 2013, as well as the overview of Nazi masculinity research by Dietrich and Heise in their volume <em>M\u00e4nnlichkeitskonstruktionen<\/em>, 2013, with reference to Connell, <em>Masculinities<\/em>, 2005. On homophobia in the Nazi era, see also zur Nieden, <em>Homosexualit\u00e4t<\/em>, 2005.<a href=\"#fnref361\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn362\">\n<p>On January&#160;9, 1944, see Kerschbaumer, \u201cOrganiertes Heimatbrauchtum,\u201d 1996: 127.<a href=\"#fnref362\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn363\">\n<p>See Kater, <em>Das \u201cAhnenerbe,\u201d <\/em>2006: 185<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>186; Ottenbacher, \u201cRichard Wolfram,\u201d 1989.<a href=\"#fnref363\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn364\">\n<p>On the permanent state of exception under Nazism, see Benjamin\u2019s theses on the philosophy of history, \u201cOn the Concept of History,\u201d 2006, 389<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>400. Original German version: \u201c\u00dcber den Begriff der Geschichte,\u201d 1991, I.2: 691<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>704.<a href=\"#fnref364\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn365\">\n<p>Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund, <\/em>1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 292.<a href=\"#fnref365\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn366\">\n<p>Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund, <\/em>1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 151 (in the Hungarian context), 281 (with the Perchten). For the history of deadly clashes between opposing groups, so-called \u201cPassen,\u201d see Zimburg, \u201cDer Perchtenlauf,\u201d 1947: 40.<a href=\"#fnref366\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn367\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund, <\/em>1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 239, on Haberfeldtreiben: 226<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>236. On its function as a moral court, see also Queri, <em>Bauernerotik, <\/em>1911<em>.<\/em><a href=\"#fnref367\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn368\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund, <\/em>1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 231.<a href=\"#fnref368\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn369\">\n<p>See Wierer et al., <em>Gasteiner Perchten, <\/em>2001: 69.<a href=\"#fnref369\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn370\">\n<p>On the local <em>Thing<\/em>, see Gruber, <em>\u00dcber 1000 Jahre, <\/em>2020: 267<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>269<a href=\"#fnref370\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn371\">\n<p>On the anti-Judaic coding of the devil figure, see DiNola, <em>Der Teufel, <\/em>1990: 371<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>375.<a href=\"#fnref371\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn372\">\n<p>On the Amerindian interpretations of the Pinzgauer Tresterer, see Kleindorfer-Marx, \u201cJetzt kommen gar Indianer,\u201d 2018. On the Tresterer, see also Kammerhofer-Aggermann, <em>Matthias tanzt, <\/em>2017; <em>Salzburger Tresterer, <\/em>2018; Malkievicz <em>Sch\u00f6nperchten, <\/em>2020.<a href=\"#fnref372\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn373\">\n<p>K\u00fcrsinger, <em>Ober-Pinzgau, <\/em>1841: 166.<a href=\"#fnref373\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn374\">\n<p>K\u00fcrsinger, <em>Ober-Pinzgau, <\/em>1841: 166.<a href=\"#fnref374\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn375\">\n<p>Hein, <em>Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Volkskunde<\/em> (Berlin); cited in Wenger, <em>Gasteiner Perchtentanz<\/em>, 1911: 15. Hein founded an association, a journal, and a museum for folklore in 1894, thus institutionalizing the field in Austria early on. His findings, published in the <em>Berliner Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Volkskunde<\/em>, are quoted in a 1911 volume on the <em>Gastein Perchtentanz<\/em> by Iwo Arnold Wenger. Wenger, in turn, emphasizes that these processions feature devil\u2019s grimaces and animal masks, whose frightening ugliness and bizarreness are echoed in similar forms across the globe. <em>Gasteiner Perchtentanz<\/em>, 1911: 15.<a href=\"#fnref375\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn376\">\n<p>See Wolfram, <em>M\u00e4nnerbund, <\/em>1936<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38: 68.<a href=\"#fnref376\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn377\">\n<p>See Wierer et al., <em>Gasteiner Perchten, <\/em>2001: 11.<a href=\"#fnref377\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn378\">\n<p>More recent historiography on the Perchten emphasizes carnival references in place of supposedly cultic elements; see Kammerhofer-Aggermann, \u201cSalzburger Karneval,\u201d 2014\/15. See also Hutter, \u201cSalzburger,\u201d 2002; Rest and Seiser, <em>Wild und sch\u00f6n<\/em>, 2016; Rumpf, <em>Perchten<\/em>, 1991; Schuhladen, \u201cZur Geschichte,\u201d 1992, emphasizing discontinuities: 45; Wierer, \u201cGasteiner Perchtengeschichte,\u201d 2002; Wierer et al., <em>Gasteiner Passen<\/em>, 2002; <em>Gasteiner Perchten<\/em>, 2001. The Venetian carnival sometimes took place around the turn of the year and its history thus testifies to the proximity of supposedly Germanic winter customs to carnivalesque masked processions. For the history of bans on these forms of performance and their connection with the exclusion and expulsion of Protestants, see also Dohle and Kammerhofer-Aggermann, \u201cMaskenverbote,\u201d 2002, who offer an analysis based on court records. Regarding the cessation of the nighttime dances in Gastein, see the mandate of the Salzburg ruler from 1756. Pfarrarchiv Taxenbach, Repertorium; cited in Gruber, <em>\u00dcber 1000 Jahre<\/em>, 2020: 423.<a href=\"#fnref378\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn379\">\n<p>See Kusser, <em>K\u00f6rper in Schieflage, <\/em>2013, on 33. On the unpredictable, unruly afterlife of colonial repertoire, see also Kusser, \u201cVisuelle Pr\u00e4sentationen,\u201d 2007; \u201cDeutscher Karneval im Black Atlantic,\u201d 2009.<a href=\"#fnref379\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn380\">\n<p>See Kammerhofer-Aggermann, \u201cSalzburger Karneval,\u201d 2014\/15; Wierer et al., <em>Gasteiner Perchten<\/em>, 2001, on 11.<a href=\"#fnref380\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn381\">\n<p>See Wierer et al., <em>Gasteiner Perchten, <\/em>2001: 22.<a href=\"#fnref381\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn382\">\n<p>On the history of the Gastein plague, see Gruber, <em>\u00dcber 1000 Jahre, <\/em>2020: 152<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>160, 399.<a href=\"#fnref382\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn383\">\n<p>On witch hunts in Gastein, see Gruber, <em>\u00dcber 1000 Jahre, <\/em>2020: 382<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>387. On the transposition of witch hunts into colonial forms of violence, see Federici, <em>Caliban, <\/em>2004. On the terror of witch burnings in the seventeenth century, see also Linebaugh and Rediker, <em>The Many-Headed Hydra<\/em>, 2008 (originally published in 2000). <a href=\"#fnref383\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn384\">\n<p>On the connection between roving bands and microfascisms, see Deleuze and Guattari, <em>A Thousand Plateaus Plateaus, <\/em>1987 (Chapter 12 on war machines: 351<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>423).<a href=\"#fnref384\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn385\">\n<p>On local Nazi resistance, see Felber et al., <em>Politisches Salzkammergut, <\/em>2024<em>.<\/em><a href=\"#fnref385\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn386\">\n<p>See Bruns, \u201cAntisemitism and Colonial Racisms,\u201d 2022: 47; Rothberg, <em>Multidirectional Memory<\/em>, 2009, with regard to the corresponding potential for alliances in the struggle against antisemitism and colonial racism.<a href=\"#fnref386\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>&nbsp; Exotic spectacles such as Ki sua heli were preceded by experiments in propagandistic mass culture labeled as genuinely National Socialist. These were buttressed, not least, by academic claims of Germanic lineages. Alongside a visual regime of antisemitic invective\u2014prefigured, for instance, by Braun\u2019s photo in drag\u2014the Nazis relied on fictitious, ethnonationalist \u201cself-indigenization:\u201d an assertion of &hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[270],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-7642","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-annuss-dirty-dragging-en"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v26.9 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Indigenizing &#8211; mdwPress<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Indigenizing &#8211; mdwPress\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"&nbsp; Exotic spectacles such as Ki sua heli were preceded by experiments in propagandistic mass culture labeled as genuinely National Socialist. These were buttressed, not least, by academic claims of Germanic lineages. Alongside a visual regime of antisemitic invective\u2014prefigured, for instance, by Braun\u2019s photo in drag\u2014the Nazis relied on fictitious, ethnonationalist \u201cself-indigenization:\u201d an assertion of &hellip;\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"mdwPress\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2026-03-31T09:08:07+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2026-03-31T09:27:40+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Jana Diewald\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Jana Diewald\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Gesch\u00e4tzte Lesezeit\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"47\u00a0Minuten\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Jana Diewald\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/718d5159661e1c0dbf47804f556bf0ba\"},\"headline\":\"Indigenizing\",\"datePublished\":\"2026-03-31T09:08:07+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2026-03-31T09:27:40+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/\"},\"wordCount\":9311,\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/en\/#organization\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\",\"articleSection\":[\"Annu\u00df: Dirty Dragging (en)\"],\"inLanguage\":\"de\"},{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-006\/\",\"name\":\"Indigenizing &#8211; 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