{"id":7895,"date":"2026-07-06T15:16:55","date_gmt":"2026-07-06T13:16:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/?p=7895"},"modified":"2026-07-06T16:08:24","modified_gmt":"2026-07-06T14:08:24","slug":"mdwp017-004","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/en\/mdwp017-004\/","title":{"rendered":"The Rhetoric of Invertible Counterpoint in the Sixteenth Century"},"content":{"rendered":"<h2 class=\"subtitle\">Between Keyboard Pedagogy and Performance Practice<\/h2>\n<h3 class=\"author\"><em>Edoardo Belotti (\u2020)<\/em><\/h3>\n<p><head><\/p>\n<style>\n        .tsquotation strong {\n            font-weight: bold;\n        }\n        .tsquotation em {\n            font-style: italic !important;\n        }\n.tsquotation {\n line-height: 1.4 !important;   \n}\n        .bibliography {\n            margin-top: -1em !important;\n            padding-left: 22px;\n            text-indent: -22px;\n        }\nfigure {\n            margin: 0;\n }\nimg 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id=\"zp-ID-7895-4511395-9FE5FH7T\" data-zp-author-date='Bellotti-2026' data-zp-date-author='2026-Bellotti' data-zp-date='2026' data-zp-year='2026' data-zp-itemtype='bookSection' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; padding-left: 1em; text-indent:-1em;\">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\">Bellotti, Edoardo. 2026. \u201cThe Rhetoric of Invertible Counterpoint in the Sixteenth Century: Between Keyboard Pedagogy and Performance Practice.\u201d In <i>\u2018Per Aures Ad Animum\u2019. The Harpsichord in the Sixteenth Century II: Italy<\/i>, edited by Augusta Campagne and Markus Grassl. mdwPress. <a class='zp-ItemURL' href='https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21939\/harpsichord-italy-16c'>https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21939\/harpsichord-italy-16c<\/a>. <a title='Cite in RIS Format' class='zp-CiteRIS' data-zp-cite='api_user_id=4511395&item_key=9FE5FH7T' href='javascript:void(0);'>Cite<\/a> <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\n\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-zp-SEO-Content -->\n\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-List -->\n\t<\/div><!--.zp-Zotpress-->\n\n\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"bdaia-toggle close\"><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-open\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-up\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-close\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-down\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><div class=\"toggle-content\"><p>\n<a href=\"#1\">Foreword<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#2\">1. Exordium. Invertible Counterpoint<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#3\">2. Medium. Teaching\/Learning Counterpoint in Sixteenth-Century Sources<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#4\">3. Finis. Counterpoint and Rhetoric<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#5\">Afterword<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#6\">Bibliography<\/a><br \/>\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<hr>\n<p><!-- \n\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\">[btn btnlink=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/10.1515_9783839425015-001.pdf\" btnsize=\"medium\" bgcolor=\"#b2b2b2\" txtcolor=\"#000000\" btnnewt=\"1\" nofollow=\"1\"]CHAPTER PDF <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\" style=\"vertical-align: middle\" alt=\"Download-Logo\" width=\"17\" height=\"17\">[\/btn]\n\n --><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"1\">Foreword<\/h4>\n<p>For many centuries, composer and performer were very often the same person. Especially for a keyboard player, improvising was the normal way of performing. Very rarely was he requested to perform music composed by others and, when he did that, he played music of his time. The music of the past was studied only as a model to be analysed and imitated in order to acquire the necessary tools and competences to become a musician. Performing music from the past is a practice that originated in the late 18th century and developed during the 19th century. The rediscovery of Bach is probably the most famous example, followed by many others. Composer-performers like Mendelssohn or Liszt included compositions of the past in their recital repertoire, in transcription, reductions, or elaborations.<\/p>\n<p>It was not until the second half of the 20th century that the \u2018historical perspective\u2019 became very important. Keyboard music, like most other areas of music, was dragged into a revolutionary storm engaged by the rediscovery and the restoration of historical instruments, organs, harpsichords, clavichords, and fortepianos. A new sound, very different from the sound of a grand piano or a modern pipe organ, was imposing substantial changes on the performance of the keyboard music of the past. This created the need to publish more accurate and correct scores, with the aim of assisting the performer in developing a more nuanced understanding of the music. The well-known Early Music Movement advocated the historically informed performance practice in reaction to romantic or modernist interpretations in use in the 20th century. The use of period instruments, original or copies, and of <em>Urtext<\/em> editions became extremely important. Every organist or harpsichordist in the early eighties was fascinated not only by the way the music of Bach, Handel, Vivaldi sounded on an period instrument, but also by the rediscovery of many forgotten composers, whose music was given new life by its performance on the appropriate instruments.<\/p>\n<p>The beauty of the sound of original instruments and the result of performances in accordance with the original scores and practices has paved the way for a new phase in the rediscovery of the music of the past: modern instrument makers wanted to study and imitate the processes used by the old masters. They wanted to understand how these processes could lead to such amazing results, and to discover the reasons for such a lively and rich sound. The reconstruction of the Arp Schnitger organ in the \u00d6rgryte Church in Goteborg, based on an instrument destroyed during the Second World War, was among the first results of this investigation and, together with other research projects on organs, clavichord, harpsichord and fortepiano, opened a new era in the approach to, and performance of, the music of the past.<\/p>\n<p>In the 21st century something similar started in the field of music theory. Theorists and musicologists began studying and publishing treatises and educational sources of the past. These sources, made available in several recent editions, enlighten us on musical pedagogy: how people learned to play, improvise, and compose, and how these three processes were closely and inseparably conjoined. A well-known example is given by the Neapolitan <em>partimenti<\/em>, a method of learning music currently attracting a growing interest among theorists and musicologists. But in turn, the Neapolitan <em>partimenti<\/em>, which seem to have strongly influenced music theory and pedagogy in the 19th-century French Conservatoire, are based on a long tradition of teaching and practice discoverable in Renaissance and Baroque sources. Some of those sources are now available through modern editions or facsimiles, such as <em>Il Transilvano<\/em> by Girolamo Diruta<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn1\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref1\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em> by Adriano Banchieri<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn2\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref2\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>, the <em>Instructio nova pro pulsandis organis, spinettis et manuchordis <\/em>by Spiridion a Monte Carmelo<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn3\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref3\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>, and the <em>Wegweiser <\/em>[\u2026]<em> die Orgel recht zu schlagen<\/em> based on the lost <em>Ars cantandi<\/em> by Giacomo Carissimi.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn4\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref4\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>It is my contention that this rediscovery of a substantial unity and consistency among the historical pedagogical sources, is now ushering in a new period, marked by the need to redesign our approach to music, the way we learn, perform, and deliver it. I discussed this fascinating process in a lecture in May 2016 at the University of Rome Tor Vergata with the title <em>Music-Museum or Creative-Music, a Baroque Antithesis? <\/em>One of the challenges of classical music in the 21st century is the rediscovery of creativity, an aspect that other kinds of music, such as jazz, have never lost. In the context of classical music, extemporaneous creativity has been preserved in the art of continuo playing and in the use of embellishments or adding diminutions of a melodic line which, as we shall see, has to do with the contrapuntal training in which every professional musician was educated. But, despite the prevailing opinion today, being a good continuo player requires much more than a basic knowledge of harmony. As Banchieri states, basso continuo is strongly related to the other ways of playing (<em>fantasia<\/em>, <em>spartitura<\/em>, <em>intavolatura<\/em>)<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn5\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref5\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and to approach it correctly many elements are needed. These include knowledge of counterpoint, knowledge of the cadences for the different church tones, knowledge of how to make imitations, canons and fugues, and memorisation of patterns and formulae learnt through the study of the music of the past. In other words, a comprehensive and integrated approach that seamlessly integrates theoretical and practical perspectives is essential. <\/p>\n<p>Today the question is increasingly insistent: how has this conjoined vision of theory and praxis, creation and delivery, composition, and performance, worked so successfully for at least three centuries? This paper is part of a larger research project focusing on the teaching of keyboard instruments between 1500 and 1700: how was music \u2013 and keyboard music in paticular \u2013 taught and learnt? I believe that understanding the teaching methods of the past not only offers us better answers concerning performance practice, but also makes us question our modern methods of teaching music and offers opportunities to improve them.<\/p>\n<p>The following pages examine the interrelationship between counterpoint and rhetoric (as an art presiding over both creation and delivery) in 16th-century keyboard music.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"2\">1.&#160;Exordium. Invertible Counterpoint<\/h4>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-1.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing invertible counterpoint in the theme from J. S. Bach\u2019s\u00a0Toccata\u00a0BWV 913. The notation presents the theme in two voices, demonstrating how the upper and lower parts can be exchanged while maintaining harmonic coherence.\" width=\"852\" height=\"458\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7896\" style=\"width:85%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-1.png 852w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-1-300x161.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-1-150x81.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-1-768x413.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-1-850x458.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 852px) 100vw, 852px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 1:<\/b> Theme from Johann Sebastian Bach, <em>Toccata<\/em> (BWV 913).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Renaissance and Baroque musical sources highlight the importance of learning invertible counterpoint as one of the cornerstones of a musician\u2019s training. Even the young Bach, as Ex.&#160;1 shows, experimented in a practical way with the treatment of a subject and took his first steps towards fugal imitation through familiarity with invertible counterpoint. Both the second and the fourth sections of <em>Toccata<\/em> BWV&#160;913 are built on two short themes in invertible counterpoint. Invertible counterpoint is an important element in cadences and sequences too. In the \u2018Sonata ottava in aria francese\u2019 in <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em>, Banchieri condenses all the necessary practical rules for imitative and fugal counterpoint \u2013 exposition, answer, stretto and invertible counterpoint in cadences \u2013 into a few bars, as Ex.&#160;2 shows.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-2.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a short four-part imitative keyboard piece in common time, written on two staves.\" width=\"794\" height=\"965\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7897\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-2.png 794w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-2-247x300.png 247w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-2-123x150.png 123w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-2-768x933.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 794px) 100vw, 794px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 2:<\/b> Adriano Banchieri, \u2018Sonata ottava, in aria francese\u2019 from <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em> (Venice, 1605), 36\u20137.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The following table (Ex.&#160;3) shows the structure of the two cadences, with the motion of the three involved voices.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3.png\" alt=\"Diagram illustrating invertible counterpoint at the cadences in the previous example. Short melodic fragments are notated on the left and right, connected by diagonal arrows crossing in the centre. Each fragment is written on a single staff in treble or bass clef, showing the exchange of musical lines between the parts.\" width=\"1159\" height=\"597\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7898\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3.png 1159w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3-300x155.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3-1024x527.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3-150x77.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3-768x396.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-3-850x438.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1159px) 100vw, 1159px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 3:<\/b> Invertible counterpoint in the two cadences (Banchieri, \u2018Sonata ottava in aria francese\u2019), bb.&#160;5 and 9.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>If, as seems to be the case, this was the normal approach to music creation, then certain questions immediately arise: What was musical education like in the 16th century? And more specifically: how were harpsichordists and organists trained and how was counterpoint (particularly invertible counterpoint) taught and learned? <\/p>\n<p>Before going in search of answers, some terminological clarifications are necessary, particularly with regard to the words <em>armonia<\/em> and <em>accordo<\/em>. Throughout the 16th century, the term <em>armonia<\/em> (harmony) referred to the contrapuntal construction of the piece and the term <em>accordo<\/em> (better translated as agreement, concordance) to the set of well-organised, concordant voices and\/or instruments. As is widely acknowledged, the concept of the harmonic triad did not yet exist at the time.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn6\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref6\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"3\">2.&#160;Medium. Teaching\/Learning Counterpoint in Sixteenth-Century Sources<\/h4>\n<p>In the 16th century the teaching and learning of counterpoint was conducted through singing. Numerous examples of <em>bicinia<\/em> can be found in sources that are to be performed by a teacher and a pupil, in many cases as a canon either read from a score or improvised. This topic has been the object of extensive studies and research<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn7\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref7\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>7<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and is not the subject of this article. In regard to keyboard music, the information is derived from three types of sources:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Treatises and handbooks for keyboard players<\/p>\n<li>Collections of pieces for beginners<\/p>\n<li>Written compositions<\/p>\n<\/ol>\n<p>In this paper, due to the limitations of space, we will focus on a select few examples from the following sources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda, <em>Libro llamado arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda<\/em> (Valladolid: Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, 1565)<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn8\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref8\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>8<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>,<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">Hernando [Antonio] de Cabez\u00f3n, <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em> (Madrid: Francisco S\u00e1nchez, 1578) (RISM 1587<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">24<\/span>)<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn9\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref9\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>9<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>, <\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">Girolamo Diruta, <em>Il Transilvano<\/em> <em>Dialogo sopra il vero modo di sonar organi, &amp; istromenti da penna<\/em> \/ <em>Seconda parte del Transilvano Dialogo diviso in quattro libri<\/em> (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti 1593 and 1609), <\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">Adriano Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em> (Venice: Ricciardo Amadino, 1605), <\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">Music examples by Andrea Gabrieli (c.&#160;1532\u20131585) and Antonio Valente (c.&#160;1520\u20131601). <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1.jpg\" alt=\"Title page of\u00a0Obras de m\u00fasica para tecla, arpa y vihuela\u00a0by Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n, published in Madrid in 1570. The page features decorative typography and an elaborate engraved coat of arms in the centre, framed by two allegorical figures.\" width=\"1240\" height=\"1936\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7899\" style=\"width:75%; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1.jpg 1240w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1-192x300.jpg 192w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1-656x1024.jpg 656w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1-96x150.jpg 96w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1-768x1199.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1-984x1536.jpg 984w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-1-850x1327.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1240px) 100vw, 1240px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 1:<\/b> Frontispiece of Hernando de Cabez\u00f3n, <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em> (Madrid, 1578).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In 1578, Hernando de Cabez\u00f3n published a large collection of music, according to the title page, for keyboard, harp and vihuela in Madrid, consisting mainly of music composed by his famous uncle Antonio. Following vocal practice, the collection opens with <em>Duos<\/em> for beginners. The <em>Duo<\/em> no.&#160;1, reproduced in full in Ex.&#160;4, is an extended exercise in which the student learns a series of fundamental elements of musical composition:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;1\u20136: first species counterpoint. The two voices can also be inverted: it is a clear example of invertible counterpoint.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;13\u201316: canon based on the movement of the descending third and ascending second.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;17\u201319: two-voice cadence.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;19\u201324: third species counterpoint. On the main accent of each bar the upper voice, with its movement of crotchets, starts on a different interval above the lower voice: unison, fifth, major sixth, minor sixth, major third, octave. Variety in the use and alternation of intervals is in fact a fundamental element of counterpoint. The same happens in bb.&#160;25\u201329, in which the lower voice is moving with crotchets.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;30\u201333: second species counterpoint. Imitations between the two voices in invertible counterpoint.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;34 to the end: florid counterpoint.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;41\u201352: two points of imitation on a subject separated by a cadence: in the first imitation the upper voice starts, in the second the lower voice starts. <\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;65\u201371: two points of imitation on a different subject. <\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;72\u201375: motion in parallel thirds.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;76\u201378: final cadence.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;80\u201382: <em>supplementum<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Even though the duo is a didactic piece, it must be noted that its structure, organised according to the principles of counterpoint, also follows a precise rhetorical project:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;1\u201318: <em>exordium<\/em>, opened by the first species counterpoint and closed by the cadence.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;19\u201372: <em>medium<\/em>, opened by the crotchets and closed with the last imitation.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Normal_Aufz\">bb.&#160;72\u201382: <em>finis<\/em>, starting with the <em>passaggio doppio<\/em>, preparing the cadence of b.&#160;78, followed by the <em>supplementum<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-4.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a\u00a0Duo\u00a0by Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n, notated on two staves in common time.\" width=\"703\" height=\"843\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7900\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-4.png 703w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-4-250x300.png 250w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-4-125x150.png 125w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 703px) 100vw, 703px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 4:<\/b> Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n, First \u2018Duo\u2019 from <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em> (Madrid, 1578), fol.&#160;1<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>What appears in Cabez\u00f3n\u2019s duo allows us to outline a training path corroborated by sources from the 16th century, as follows:<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal_Aufz_Num\">1) <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Learning cadences<\/span>: the 8&#160;modes and their characteristics (Zarlino, <em>Istitutioni harmoniche<\/em>, Ortiz, <em>Tratado de glosas<\/em>,Diruta, <em>Il Transilvano<\/em>, Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Cadences are the supporting elements of the musical structure. Each of the eight church tones has its own principal <em>corde<\/em> (axes) on which the three cadences are built: the middle cadence generally on the fifth degree of the modal scale, the second cadence (which Banchieri defines as <em>indifferente<\/em>, because it can be used optionally) generally on the third degree and the final cadence, the most important, on the <em>finalis<\/em> or fundamental note of the tone.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn10\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref10\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>10<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Ortiz\u2019s <em>Tratado de glosas <\/em>opens with a large collection of cadences and some explanations of their use. Keyboard players could realize the same cadences for two, three and four voices.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2.jpg\" alt=\"Printed page from Diego Ortiz\u2019s\u00a0Tratado de glosas\u00a0showing the table of contents (Tavola del libro primo). The text is arranged in two columns listing different types of cadences and ornaments, with headings such as \u201cCadenze corte per b mol\u201d and \u201cCadenze larghe per b mol.\u201d The page is printed in black ink with italic and roman type, typical of mid-sixteenth-century Italian music theory publications.\" width=\"1394\" height=\"985\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7901\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2.jpg 1394w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2-300x212.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2-1024x724.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2-150x106.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2-768x543.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2-104x74.jpg 104w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Fig.-2-850x601.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1394px) 100vw, 1394px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 2:<\/b> Diego Ortiz, <em>Tratado de glosas sobre clausulas y otros generos de puntos en la musica de violones \/ El primo libro<\/em> [\u2026] <em>nel qual si tratta delle glosse sopra le cadenze &amp; altre sorte de punti in la musica del violone<\/em> (Rome: Valerio &amp; Luigi Dorico, 1553), table of contents, fol&#160;4<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>, &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000037748\">http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000037748<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 17 July 2024).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Equally the <em>Fundamenta<\/em> and manuals for organists from the late 15th and early 16th centuries present collections of cadential formulas, often organised according to the eight church tones.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn11\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref11\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>11<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda dedicates a few pages to the <em>clausulas<\/em>, specifying where they must be placed in each tone.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn12\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref12\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>12<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Adriano Banchieri offers a collection of hundred cadences in two, three, four and five voices at the end of his <em>Cartella musicale nel canto figurato, fermo e contrapunto<\/em> (Venice, 1614).<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn13\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref13\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>13<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal_Aufz_Num\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">2) Two-part counterpoint (with invertible solutions)<\/span>: exercises based on Bicinia (all the sources).<\/p>\n<p>As a complement to his explanation of modal theory, Zarlino, in his <em>Istitutioni harmoniche<\/em> (Venice, 1558), proposes twelve short ricercares for two voices, as models for learning the character of each church tone and the main formulas of counterpoint.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn14\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref14\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>14<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal_Aufz_Num\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">3) Schemata (based on the character of intervals):<\/span> progressions, canons (Cabez\u00f3n, <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em>, Ortiz, <em>Tratado de glosas<\/em>, Santa Mar\u00eda, <em>Arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda<\/em>, Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Even before his presentation of the church tones, and the different kinds of cadences, Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda provides several examples of two-voice canons based on ascending and descending movements.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn15\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref15\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>15<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> (Ex.&#160;5 shows a <em>Duo<\/em> in which the canon is based on the commonly used schema of an ascending third followed by a descending second.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-5.png\" alt=\"Printed musical example titled \u201cA Duo\u201d from Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda\u2019s\u00a0Arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda\u00a0(1565). The image shows two staves of black mensural notation. Bar lines divide the phrase, and accidentals appear as small symbols beside the notes.\" width=\"943\" height=\"514\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7902\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-5.png 943w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-5-300x164.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-5-150x82.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-5-768x419.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-5-850x463.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 943px) 100vw, 943px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 5:<\/b> \u2018Duo\u2019 from Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda,<em> Libro llamado arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda<\/em>, i, fol.&#160;54<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">v<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal_Aufz_Num\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">4) Counterpoint on cantus firmus or tenori and three\/four-voice ricercari<\/span> (Ortiz, <em>Tratado de glosas<\/em>, Cabez\u00f3n, <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em>, Diruta, <em>Il Transilvano<\/em>, Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Following the collection of <em>Duos para principiantes<\/em>, Cabez\u00f3n introduces two-voice pieces based on a liturgical cantus firmus, such as an <em>Ave maris stella<\/em>. The cantus &#173;firmus is placed first in the bass and subsequently in the soprano. The next step entails the introduction of three-voice pieces in which the cantus firmus is alternately placed in all three voices. <\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal_Aufz_Num\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">5) Fauxbourdon<\/span> (all the sources).<\/p>\n<p>In the chapter \u2018favordones de todos los ochos tonos\u2019 (\u2018Fauxbourdons in the eight church tones\u2019) Cabez\u00f3n documents the process of learning <em>fauxbourdon<\/em> technique and memorising its related patterns. The <em>fauxbourdon<\/em> was one of the most used &#173;pedagogical tools for teaching diminution. Each <em>Fabordon <\/em>is followed by three versions in which respectively cantus, bassus and tenor are enriched by <em>glosas<\/em> (diminutions). Ex.&#160;6 shows the first <em>Fabordon<\/em> in the first tone and Ex.&#160;7 its version with diminutions in the bass.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-6.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of a\u00a0Fabord\u00f3n\u00a0by Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n, written on two staves in common time. The piece alternates between homophonic chordal textures and short stepwise melodic movements.\" width=\"844\" height=\"339\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7903\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-6.png 844w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-6-300x120.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-6-150x60.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-6-768x308.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 844px) 100vw, 844px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 6:<\/b> Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n, \u2018Fabordon del primer tono\u2019 from <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em> (Madrid, 1578), fol.&#160;13<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-7.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n\u2019s\u00a0Fabord\u00f3n glosado, notated on two staves in common time. The piece alternates between sustained chordal harmonies in the upper voices and flowing ornamental passages in the lower voice, characteristic of a\u00a0glosado\u00a0or embellished setting in sixteenth-century keyboard style.\" width=\"827\" height=\"676\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7904\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-7.png 827w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-7-300x245.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-7-150x123.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-7-768x628.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 827px) 100vw, 827px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 7:<\/b> Antonio de Cabez\u00f3n, \u2018Fabordon del primer tono\u2019 [\u2018Glosado con el contrabaxo\u2019] from <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em> (Madrid, 1578), fols.&#160;13<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r-v<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal_Aufz_Num\"><span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">6) Imitative counterpoint<\/span> (all the sources). In general, most of the examples given consist of collections of verses, generally grouped in church-tone order. We will return to such verses later.<\/p>\n<p>The cadential formulas, schemes for invertible counterpoint, and patterns for canons and imitations listed in treatises and handbooks can be widely identified in the keyboard repertoire. This research intentionally focused on the repertoire in which counterpoint has a greater importance, excluding other musical forms such as dances and variations. Five examples have been chosen from compositions by the Venetian Andrea Gabrieli and the Neapolitan Antonio Valente. <\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-8.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Giovanni Gabrieli\u2019s\u00a0Canzon arioso, notated on two staves in common time. The passage alternates between imitative melodic figures and more homophonic sections, illustrating characteristic cadential formulas.\" width=\"802\" height=\"505\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7905\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-8.png 802w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-8-300x189.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-8-150x94.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-8-768x484.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 802px) 100vw, 802px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 8:<\/b> Andrea Gabrieli, \u2018Canzon ariosa\u2019, bb.&#160;1\u201310, from <em>Il terzo libro de ricercari<\/em> (Venice: Angelo Gardano, 1596) fol.&#160;30<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r-v <\/span>(author\u2019s transcription), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-55399\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-55399<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 27&#160;August 2024).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The <em>Canzon ariosa<\/em> is one of Gabrieli\u2019s best-known pieces, included in several printed and manuscript collections.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn16\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref16\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>16<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> It is a perfect example of counterpoint and brilliant use of diminutions. The short subject, with a dactylic incipit, is stated in stretto format in the first four bars and again, from b.&#160;7 to b.&#160;10 with some <em>coloratura<\/em>. The two expositions are connected by a richly ornamented cadence (see Ex.&#160;8).<\/p>\n<p>The second example is the \u2018Ricercare del quinto tono\u2019 from Gabrieli\u2019s <em>Libro secondo<\/em> published posthumously in 1595. Two short subjects, based mainly on stepwise motion, are presented one after the other by the tenor, while the soprano states the two answers in melodic inversion (see Ex.&#160;9). This contrapuntal strategy initiates a series of imitations that occupy the entire first part of the composition. <\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Giovanni Gabrieli\u2019s\u00a0Ricercar del quinto tono, notated on two staves in common time. The piece features imitative contrapuntal writing, with overlapping melodic entries between the voices and clear cadential points.\" width=\"860\" height=\"496\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7907\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9.png 860w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9-300x173.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9-150x87.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9-768x443.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9-850x491.png 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-9-384x220.png 384w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 860px) 100vw, 860px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 9:<\/b> Andrea Gabrieli, \u2018Ricercare del quinto tono\u2019, bb.&#160;1\u201316, from <em>Ricercari di Andrea Gabrieli<\/em> [\u2026] <em>libro secondo<\/em> (Venice: Angelo Gardano, 1595), fol.&#160;17<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">v<\/span> (author\u2019s transcription), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-56111\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-56111<\/a>&gt; (accessed on 17&#160;July 2024).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The remaining three examples are taken from <em>Versi spirituali sopra tutte le note<\/em>, published in Naples in 1580, the second printed collection by the Neapolitan Antonio Valente, organist in Sant\u2019Angelo a Nilo.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn17\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref17\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>17<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> A collection of verses, i.e. short compositions, with the practical purpose of responding to the plainchant during the rites, is of particular importance. Although often overlooked due to its brevity (which makes it unsuitable for concert performance), the verse condenses the best melodic and contrapuntal solutions of the time and is therefore a precious didactic testimony. Very often, in fact, the same elements already present in the structure of a verse are employed to create more complex compositions such as <em>ricercari<\/em> and <em>canzoni<\/em>. Renaissance repertoire enumerates a large collection of verses: in addition to the prints by Cavazzoni, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Merulo, Cabez\u00f3n and Valente, verses are found in the manuscripts of Castell\u2019Arquato and in the German tablatures preserved in Turin and Berlin. Beyond its liturgical duty, the verse had an important didactic function, even at the end of the seventeenth century, as the large autograph collection of verses by Bernardo Pasquini attests. The composer used this material to teach counterpoint and composition to his nephew Bernardo Ricordati.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn18\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref18\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>18<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>This paper considers three of the verses by Antonio Valente. His <em>Verso Primo sopra dell\u2019Ut<\/em> (Ex.&#160;10) offers a clear example of canonic imitation, based on the movement of the rising fourth and falling third in invertible counterpoint.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-10.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Antonio Valente\u2019s\u00a0Verso primo sopra dell\u2019Ut, notated on two staves in common time. The piece features imitative counterpoint with alternating short melodic phrases between the hands.\" width=\"811\" height=\"332\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7908\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-10.png 811w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-10-300x123.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-10-150x61.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-10-768x314.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 811px) 100vw, 811px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 10:<\/b> Antonio Valente, \u2018Verso primo sopra dell\u2019Ut\u2019, bb.&#160;1\u20138, from <em>Versi spirituali sopra tutte le note <\/em>(Naples, 1580), 1.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In bb.&#160;1 and 2 the canon is introduced by the tenor and the alto, while the bass presents the entire subject from the middle of b.&#160;3 and the soprano does the same from the middle of b.&#160;5. The four descending crotchets in the alto voice in b.&#160;2 are then taken up for further imitations and for parallel third movements in bb.&#160;6\u20138.<\/p>\n<p><em>Verso sesto sopra il Re<\/em> presents a double pair of voices in canonic imitation: the canon at the fifth between bass and tenor runs through the entire verse, while the subject is freely imitated in alto and soprano. Ex.&#160;11 presents the first five bars of the verse.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-11.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Antonio Valente\u2019s\u00a0Verso sesto sopra il Re, written on two staves in common time. The passage features smooth imitative counterpoint with stepwise motion in both voices.\" width=\"819\" height=\"170\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7909\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-11.png 819w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-11-300x62.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-11-150x31.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-11-768x159.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 819px) 100vw, 819px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 11:<\/b> Antonio Valente,\u2018Verso sesto sopra il Re\u2019, bb.&#160;1\u20135, from <em>Versi spirituali sopra tutte le note<\/em> (Naples, 1580), 30.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In the <em>Verso quarto sopra il Re<\/em> (Ex.&#160;12), there is a subject covering an interval of a seventh, an apparently unusual extension. The theme, all in eighth notes, is made up of two elements, a <em>circulo<\/em> covering an interval of a third and an ascending <em>tirata<\/em> covering the remaining fifth. In this way the subject touches all three <em>corde<\/em> (axes) of the first tone (<em>re-fa-la<\/em>) to end up on the note <em>c<\/em>, i.e. the <em>fa<\/em> of the new hexachord in which the answer enters. The imitation between soprano and alto in the first five bars is repeated identically by tenor and bass in the following five bars. The imitations based on the descending <em>tirata <\/em>in bb.&#160;4\u20135 are again repeated an octave lower in bb.&#160;9\u201310. The economy of material and procedures constitutes the basis of the entire verse.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Antonio Valente\u2019s\u00a0Verso quarto sopra il Re, notated on two staves in common time. The texture features lively imitative counterpoint between the hands, with short sequential passages.\" width=\"885\" height=\"507\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7910\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12.png 885w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12-300x172.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12-150x86.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12-768x440.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12-850x487.png 850w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-12-384x220.png 384w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 885px) 100vw, 885px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 12:<\/b> Antonio Valente, \u2018Verso quarto sopra il Re\u2019, bb.&#160;1\u201313, from <em>Versi spirituali sopra tutte le note <\/em>(Naples, 1580), 23.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>A subject like the previous one is found in Adriano Willaert\u2019s <em>Ricercare&#160;I<\/em>,which opens <em>Musica nova<\/em>, a collection of <em>ricercari<\/em> published in Venice in 1540.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn19\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref19\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>19<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As in Valente\u2019s verse, soprano and alto state the subject and answer in the first five bars, while tenor and bass repeat the same imitation in the following five bars (see Ex.&#160;13). <\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-13.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing a transcription of Adrian Willaert\u2019s\u00a0Ricercare Primo\u00a0from\u00a0Musica Nova, notated on two staves in common time. The piece features a measured, imitative texture characteristic of early ricercar style, with the subject first appearing in the upper voice and answered in the lower ones. The counterpoint unfolds gradually, using long note values.\" width=\"753\" height=\"306\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7911\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-13.png 753w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-13-300x122.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-13-150x61.png 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 753px) 100vw, 753px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 13:<\/b> Adriano Willaert, \u2018Ricercare&#160;I\u2019 from <em>Musica nova<\/em> (Venice, 1540) \/ <em>Musicque de joye<\/em> (Lyon, [1544]), bb.&#160;1\u201310.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>In all the examples above, with the exception of Valente\u2019s <em>Verso secondo<\/em>, the interval of a fourth seems to be preferred in the creation of subjects. The most commonly used patterns can be reduced to four schemes, shown in Ex.&#160;14. Scheme 4, based on the motion of an ascending fourth and a descending third (as well as their inversions), was very frequently used in the construction of canons.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-14.png\" alt=\"Musical example showing four short melodic subjects, each notated on a single staff in common time and numbered 1 through 4. The examples consist of simple stepwise motifs in crotchets and minims, illustrating the preferred use of the interval of a fourth for generating subjects.\" width=\"910\" height=\"307\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7912\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-14.png 910w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-14-300x101.png 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-14-150x51.png 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-14-768x259.png 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-14-850x287.png 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 910px) 100vw, 910px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 14<\/b><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In Diruta\u2019s <em>Transilvano<\/em>, under the name of <em>Accadenzie di Gabriel Fattorini<\/em>, a large collection of four-part formulas based on invertible counterpoint is presented. Each of these is amusical box that can be opened to create an entire composition.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn20\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref20\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>20<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Ex.&#160;15 shows this kind of <em>contrapunto trasportato in tutte le parti <\/em>(counterpoint transposed in all parts). Scheme no.&#160;176 features four melodic lines overlapped in four-voice counterpoint. In schemes nos.&#160;177, 178 and 179 the same melodic lines are exchanged between the voices: the soprano of 176 becomes the alto in 177 and the bass in 178, while the bass of 176 becomes the soprano in 177 and the tenor in 178, etc.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-15.jpg\" alt=\"Printed page from Girolamo Diruta\u2019s\u00a0Il Transilvano\u00a0(1609) showing examples of cadences composed by Fattorini. The image displays two systems of dense mensural notation with multiple cadential formulas labeled \u201cContr. trasportato in tutte le parte,\u201d \u201cPrima trasport.,\u201d \u201cSeconda trasport.,\u201d and \u201cTerza trasport.\u201d The music is printed in black ink with diamond-shaped noteheads and vertical alignment typical of early seventeenth-century keyboard scores.\" width=\"480\" height=\"441\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7913\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-15.jpg 480w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-15-300x276.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ex.-15-150x138.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 480px) 100vw, 480px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Example 15:<\/b> \u2018Accadenzie di Gabriel Fattorini\u2019 from Diruta, <em>Seconda parte del Transilvano<\/em> (Venice, 1609), lib.&#160;ii, p.&#160;19.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"4\">3. Finis. Counterpoint and Rhetoric<\/h4>\n<p>Having analysed the way counterpoint was taught and learnt, it is now necessary to consider its rhetorical function in Renaissance musical composition. Humanism led to the rediscovery of the classical world and particularly of the Greek theatre. Interest in Greek music and theatre was cultivated throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, particularly in Italian humanistic circles. In the Greek world, music and poetry formed one whole, while in the following centuries they came to be separated, giving rise to autonomous disciplines. Humanistic circles, in their attempt to recreate Greek theatre, sought a new way of unification between music and poetry, and found it in the concept of <em>imitatio<\/em>. Two of the most influential exponents of humanistic culture, both from Venice, were Pietro Bembo and Gioseffo Zarlino. Through the concept of imitation, the first elaborated a musical description of poetry, the second a poetic description of music. In <em>Prose della volgar lingua<\/em> (Venice, 1525), Bembo writes:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">Da sciegliere adunque sono le voci, se di materia grande si ragiona, gravi, alte, sonanti, apparenti, luminose, se di bassa e volgare, lievi, piane, dimesse, popolari, chete: se di mezzana tra queste due, medesimamente con voci mezzane e temperate [\u2026].<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn21\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref21\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>21<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018One must, therefore, when speaking of lofty matters, choose voices that are grave, high, sonorous, striking, luminous; for low and mean matters, light, flat, humble, common, quiet [voices]: if in the middle between these two, likewise with middling and temperate voices [\u2026].\u2019)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Zarlino in the <em>Sopplimenti musicali<\/em> (Venice, 1588) writes:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">Si com\u2019al Poeta \u00e8 concesso d\u2019imitar le cose con parole accomodate nel Verso [\u2026] cos\u00ec \u00e8 concesso al Musico &amp; Melopeio, imitar con la Modulatione &amp; con l\u2019Harmonia, con quel modo migliore ch\u2019ei pu\u00f2 fare, quello che esprimono le parole contenute nell\u2019Oratione.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn22\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref22\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>22<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018Just as the poet can imitate things with words organised in verse [\u2026], so the musician and <em>Melopeio<\/em> can imitate with Modulation and Harmony, in the best way he can, what the words contained in the oration express.\u2019 [Translation by the author])<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Imitation is the key to understanding music and poetry. Poetry expresses the content through an appropriate choice of sounds, exactly as music makes a choice of modes, intervals, and figures, in relation to the content to be transmitted. Consequently, the formal organisation of a poetic text, as well as a musical score, is based on rhetoric. The entire creative process in music, as in poetry, is inspired by the canons of classical rhetoric, which humanism had rediscovered and reworked.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted, however, that this reworking of rhetoric is proposed not without contention among theorists. The performers (musicians, but also actors, poets, and artists in general) spontaneously implement it through experience directly received from their respective teachers and matured in the heat of the performance.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn23\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref23\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>23<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The creative process in music, as in other arts and in language, can be summarized as follows:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>The choice of the subject\/s, or <em>inventio<\/em>: This could be derived from a cantus firmus (plainchant) or a secular <em>tenore<\/em> (Bergamasca, Ruggiero, Romanesca etc.) This process requires analysis of the structure and recognition of the mode, with its related cadences and sequences. Alternatively it could be freely created by the composer, a process called <em>fantasia <\/em>by Banchieri. In this case the subject must be short, and prevalently within the range of a fourth or a fifth.<\/p>\n<li>The organisation of the piece, or <em>dispositio<\/em>: This must follow the mode, with the correct order of cadences and the most suitable progressions. It involves the creation of a second subject with invertible counterpoint.<\/p>\n<li>The choice of figures and ornaments, or <em>elocutio<\/em>: Intervals, figures, and diminutions or ornaments must be chosen in accordance with the topic and the character of the piece.<\/p>\n<li>The memorisation, or <em>memoria<\/em>: Memorisation is an important part of music education: it is the best way to collect ideas, schemes, patterns, melodies, and canons, which can all become part of a personal database. For a keyboard player, memorisation is a physical process involving fingers, hands, and posture, as well as a mental one. A correct fingering was \u2013 and still is \u2013 the best way to memorize patterns and to facilitate their transpositions. <\/p>\n<li>Finally the performance, or <em>actio<\/em>: The art of delivery of a piece of music involves choice of the instrument, registration, articulation, tempo, dynamic etc. In Italy theatre and music have always given great importance to this final element. From the middle of the 16th century onwards, the performer delivering the message of the text, music, and action to the public gained an increasing importance, almost equivalent to that of the composer. This was especially the case of singers, as Bottrigari writes: <\/p>\n<\/ol>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">[\u2026] della espressione degli affetti &amp; della pronuntia delle parole; dalle quali, &amp; massimamente essendo bene imitate dall\u2019Eccellente Musico nella sua cantilena, veramente deriva il maggiore di tutti i commovimenti de gli animi delle persone ascoltatrici.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn24\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref24\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>24<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">(\u2018[\u2026] of the expression of the affects and the pronunciation of the words; from these, especially when well imitated by the Excellent Musician in his song, does there truly derive the greatest stirring in the souls of the listeners.\u2019 [Translation by the author])<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>In the field of keyboard music, as already observed in the foreword, composer and performer were very often the same person, and the performer has a similar duty to that of a good <em>orator <\/em>who deeply moves his listeners through a skillful delivery of his speech. <\/p>\n<h4 id=\"5\">Afterword<\/h4>\n<p>For over three centuries, the entire musical education was based on the study of counterpoint, which was learned in a practical way. A substantial body of research conducted in recent years has already highlighted the techniques which enabled the extemporaneous contrapuntal vocal improvisation practiced by the <em>scholae <\/em>in the 16th century.<span class=\"Hochgestellt_footnote\"><span><a href=\"#fn25\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref25\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>25<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Singing was also an essential component of keyboard player\u2019s education. Various sources discussed above present us with special techniques of direct learning on the keyboard that can be applied to this context. The teaching method was based on the imitation and memorisation of formulas. With this process the student presented with a theme or cantus firmus was immediately able to recognize its fundamental elements and, consequently, to add other voices, which in turn led to the construction of a complete musical piece. The methodology was identical to the one we use today to learn a language: memorisation and repetition of words, phrases and formulas through activity or <em>conversation<\/em>. Grammar comes later. This approach invites us to review our educational and performance practices.<\/p>\n<p>Musical study is still too preoccupied with a dichotomy between theory and practice, adhering to a somewhat museum-like approach to compositions. The methodology develops reading and performance techniques and devotes very little attention to the way in which these compositions were constructed, composed, and improvised. Performance practice focused on the <em>actio<\/em> without an attentive study of the other moments of musical creation (<em>inventio, dispositio, elocutio<\/em>) prevents an adequate interpretation of the content of the scores and the meaning of the musical signs and figures contained therein. This in turn affects the quality of performance. <\/p>\n<p>Harmony studies should be preceded by counterpoint studies, concretely applied in an active experience at the keyboard. The study of the musical building blocks as described in the cited sources, therefore allows us not only to improve our understanding of the repertoire, but also to develop a more creative way of teaching of music for the benefit of the new generations and to increase their interest in the world of classical music.<\/p>\n<h4>Endnotes<\/h4>\n<hr class=\"HorizontalRule-1\" \/>\n<ol>\n<li id=\"fn1\">\n<p>Girolamo Diruta, <em>Il Transilvano<\/em> <em>Dialogo sopra il vero modo di sonar organi, &amp; istromenti da penna<\/em> \/ <em>Seconda parte del Transilvano Dialogo diviso in quattro libri<\/em> (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti 1593 and 1609), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/hdl.loc.gov\/loc.music\/muspre1800.100422\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/hdl.loc.gov\/loc.music\/muspre1800.100422<\/span><\/a>&gt; (book of 1593), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bibliotecamusica.it\/cmbm\/viewschedatwbca.asp?path=\/cmbm\/images\/ripro\/gaspari\/_D\/D019\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.bibliotecamusica.it\/cmbm\/viewschedatwbca.asp?path=\/cmbm\/images\/<\/span><span class=\"Hyperlink\">ripro<\/span><span class=\"Hyperlink\">\/gaspari\/_D\/D019\/<\/span><\/a>&gt; (book of 1609) (accessed on 25&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref1\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn2\">\n<p>Adriano Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em> (Venice: Ricciardo Amadino, 1605), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.at\/books?id=yzYzAQAAMAAJ&amp;hl=de&amp;pg=PA36%22%20%5Cl%20%22v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/books.google.at\/books?id=yzYzAQAAMAAJ&amp;hl=de&amp;pg=PA36 &#8211; v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 25&#160;July 2024). Modern edition: <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino (Venezia 1605)<\/em>, ed. Edoardo Bellotti, Tastata 31 (Latina, 2014).<a href=\"#fnref2\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn3\">\n<p>Spiridion a Monte Carmelo, <em>Instructio nova pro pulsandis organis, spinettis, manuchordiis etc<\/em>.(Bamberg: Johann Georg Seuffert \/ Johann Jacob Immel, 1669\u20131672) (VD17&#160;14:705645R), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Nova_Instructio_(Spiridion)\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Nova_Instructio_(Spiridion)<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 25&#160;July 2024). Modern edition: <em>Spiridionis a Monte Carmelo Nova instructio pro pulsandis organis, spinettis, manuchordiis etc<\/em>., ed. Edoardo Bellotti, Tastature 11 (Colledara, 2003).<a href=\"#fnref3\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn4\">\n<p>This Handbook for organists has been reprinted several times between 1668 and 1718. Rudolf Walter discusses the question in his preface to a modern edition that unfortunately collects only the music examples and completely omits the didactical chapters: <em>Orgelst\u00fccke aus der Orgelschule Wegweiser (Augsburg 1668). Kurze und leichte Pr\u00e4ambula und Versus in den acht Kirchentonarten<\/em>, ed. Rudolf Walter, S\u00fcddeutsche Orgelmeister des Barock 8 (Alt\u00f6tting, 1964), 3\u20134. A modern edition of the 1692 reprint is available: Elinore Barber and Walter B. Hewlett, \u2018Riemenschneider Bach Institute Vault Holdings, facsimile series: \u2026 <em>Wegweiser \u2026 die Kunst die Orgel recht zu schlagen<\/em>, Part i\u2013vi\u2019, in: <em>Bach. Journal of the Riemenschneider Bach Institute <\/em>18 (1987), no.&#160;1, 25\u201336; no.&#160;2, 4\u201335, 37\u201363; no.&#160;3, 11\u201337; no.&#160;4, 29\u201354; 19 (1988), no.&#160;2, 25\u201356; no.&#160;3, 19\u201374. A digital copy of the edition of 1689 is available on: &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/data.onb.ac.at\/rep\/10597330\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/data.onb.ac.at\/rep\/10597330<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 26&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref4\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn5\">\n<p>Adriano Banchieri, <em>Conclusioni nel suono dell\u2019organo<\/em> (Bologna: Giovanni Rossi, 1609), 24\u20135, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/115414\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/115414<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 8&#160;August 2024).<a href=\"#fnref5\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn6\">\n<p>In his <em>Istitutioni harmoniche<\/em> (Venice, 1558) Zarlino declares that music is composed of two elements: <em>armonia<\/em> and <em>numero<\/em>. By <em>armonia<\/em> he means the contrapuntal construction and by <em>numero<\/em> the rhythmic\/metric structure. Cf. Paolo Cecchi, \u2018Il rapporto tra testo letterario e intonazione musicale nei teorici italiani di fine Cinquecento\u2019, in: <em>Claudio Monteverdi: Studi e prospettive: Atti del convegno, Mantova, 21\u201324 ottobre 1993<\/em>, ed. Paola Besutti, Teresa M. Gialdroni and Rodolfo Baroncini (Florence, 1998), 549\u2013605. For further discussion of this topic see Edoardo Bellotti, \u2018Basso continuo e contrappunto nelle fonti seicentesche: un moderno approccio alla didattica musicale\u2019, in: <em>Basso Continuo in Italy: Sources, Pedagogy and Performance<\/em>, ed. Marcello Mazzetti (Turnhout, 2023), 265\u201384.<a href=\"#fnref6\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn7\">\n<p>The educational production of duos is endless. A large collection can be found in Andrea Bornstein, <em>Two-Part Italian Didactic Music: Printed Collections of the Renaissance and Baroque (1521\u20131744)<\/em>, 3&#160;vols. (Bologna, 2004). Peter Schubert has studied Renaissance &#173;vocal practice extensively, emphasising its didactic importance. See Peter Schubert, \u2018Counterpoint Pedagogy in the Renaissance\u2019, in: <em>The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory<\/em>, ed. Thomas Christensen (Cambridge, 2002), 503\u201333; and idem, \u2018From Improvisation to Composition: Three Sixteenth-Century Case Studies\u2019,in: Rob C. Wegman, Johannes Menke and Peter Schubert,<em> Improvising Early Music<\/em>,Collected Writings of the Orpheus Institute 11(Leuven, 2014), 93\u2013130.<a href=\"#fnref7\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn8\">\n<p>&lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000158382&amp;page=1\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000158382&amp;page=1<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 25&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref8\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn9\">\n<p>&lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/rism\/BI\/1578\/24\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/purl.org\/rism\/BI\/1578\/24<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 25&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref9\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn10\">\n<p>Diruta and Banchieri provide a table with all the cadences organised into the eight tones. Cf. Diruta, <em>Seconda parte<\/em> (see n.&#160;1), lib.&#160;iii, 2\u20133. Adriano Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em>, ed. Edoardo Bellotti (Latina, 2014), 28\u20139. Cf. Edoardo Bellotti, \u2018Adriano Banchieri and the Theory and Practice of Counterpoint and Basso Continuo in the Seventeenth Century\u2019, in: <em>The Organ Yearbook<\/em> 47 (2018), 49\u201378.<a href=\"#fnref10\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn11\">\n<p>Cf. Mariateresa Muttoni, \u2018Modi dell\u2019improvvisazione nelle intavolature tedesche per &#173;organo fra Quattro e Cinquecento\u2019, in: <em>Sull\u2019improvvisazione<\/em>, ed. Claudio Toscani (Lucca, 1998), 11\u201362; August Valentin Rabe, \u2018Singing, Reading, Writing, Playing: Practising with Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda\u2019, in: <em>\u2018Universum rei harmonicae concentum absolvunt\u2019: The Harpsichord in the Sixteenth Century<\/em>, ed. Augusta Campagne and Markus Grassl (Vienna, 2024), 66\u201378, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp03-singing-reading\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp03-singing-reading\/<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed 13&#160;Oct. 2025); August Valentin Rabe, \u2018<em>Benutze nun die Tafeln selbst<\/em>\u2019<em>. Sammeln, Schreiben, Lehren und \u00dcben mit einem Fundamentum (ca.&#160;1440\u20131550)<\/em>, Wiener Forum f\u00fcr \u00e4ltere Musikgeschichte 14 (Vienna, 2025).<a href=\"#fnref11\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn12\">\n<p>Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda, <em>Libro llamado arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda<\/em> (see n.&#160;8), i, fols.&#160;62<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>\u201364<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">r<\/span>. <a href=\"#fnref12\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn13\">\n<p>Adriano Banchieri, <em>Cartella musicale nel canto figurato fermo e contrapunto<\/em> (Venedig: Giacomo Vincenti, 1614), 236\u201348, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/158853\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/158853<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 17&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref13\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn14\">\n<p>Gioseffo Zarlino, <em>Le istitutioni harmoniche<\/em> (Venice, 1558), 320\u201335, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/leistitutionihar00zarl\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/archive.org\/&#173;details\/leistitutionihar00zarl<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 17&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref14\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn15\">\n<p>Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda, <em>Libro llamado arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda <\/em>(see n.&#160;8), i, fols.&#160;53<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">v<\/span>\u201355<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">v<\/span>.<a href=\"#fnref15\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn16\">\n<p>E.g. in: Johannes Woltz, <em>Nova musices organicae tabulatura<\/em> (Basel: Johann Jacob Genath, 1617), part&#160;III, no.&#160;49, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb00050860\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb00050860<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed 13&#160;Oct. 2025). For a complete list see Giuseppe Clericetti, \u2018Le composizioni per strumenti a tastiera di Andrea Gabrieli. Catalogo, bibliografia, varianti\u2019, in: <em>L\u2019Organo<\/em> 25\/26 (1987\/88), 9\u201361, at 21\u20132.<a href=\"#fnref16\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn17\">\n<p>Antonio Valente, <em>Versi spirituali sopra tutte le note, con diversi canoni spartiti per sonar &#173;negli organi<\/em> [\u2026] <em>libro secondo<\/em> (Naples: Eredi di Mattio Cancer, 1580), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/907887\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/907887<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 17&#160;July 2024). The first collection of Valente, titled <em>Intavolatura de cimbalo, recercate, fantasie et canzoni francese desminuite con alcuni tenori, balli et varie sorte de contraponti<\/em> (Naples: Gioseppe Cacchio dall\u2019Aquila), was printed in 1576. On this collection see the contribution of Paola Erdas in this volume. <a href=\"#fnref17\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn18\">\n<p>Bernardo Pasquini, <em>Opere per Tastiera. Vol&#160;VII: London, Bl Ms.Add. 31501, II\u2013III<\/em>, ed. Armando Carideo, Tastata 19 (Latina, 2006).<a href=\"#fnref18\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn19\">\n<p><em>Musica nova accomodata per cantar e sonar sopra organi<\/em> (Venice: Andrea Arrivabene, 1540) (RISM 1540<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">22<\/span>, Brown 1540<span class=\"Tiefgestellt\">3<\/span>). As is well known, only the bass part book of this print has survived (in I-Bc). Yet, nineteen of twenty-one compositions including the <em>Ricercare<\/em> by Willaert, were reprinted in <em>Musicque de joye<\/em> (Lyon: Jacques Moderne [1544]) (RISM c.1550<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">24<\/span>, Brown 154?<span class=\"Tiefgestellt\">6<\/span>), &lt;<span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Musicque_de_joye_(Moderne,_Jacques) &#8211; IMSLP58337<\/span>&gt; (accessed on 17&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref19\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn20\">\n<p>Cf. Massimiliano Guido and Peter Schubert, \u2018Unpacking the Box in Frescobaldi\u2019s Ricercari of 1615\u2019, in: <em>Music Theory Online <\/em>20 (2014), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mtosmt.org\/issues\/mto.14.20.2\/mto.14.20.2.guido_schubert.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/mtosmt.org\/issues\/mto.14.20.2\/mto.&#173;14.20.2.&#173;guido_schubert.html<\/span><\/a><span class=\"Hyperlink\">&gt;<\/span> (accessed on 15&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref20\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn21\">\n<p>Pietro Bembo, <em>Prose<\/em> [\u2026] <em>della volgar lingua<\/em> (Venice, 1525), fol.&#160;xxiii<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">v<\/span>, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb10142586\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb10142586<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 17&#160;July 2024). Modern edition: <em>Prose e rime di Pietro Bembo<\/em>, ed. Carlo Dionisotti (Turin, 1966), 137. Translation by Candace Smith.<a href=\"#fnref21\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn22\">\n<p>Gioseffo Zarlino, <em>Sopplimenti musicali<\/em> (Venice: Francesco de i Francesci Senese, 1588), 316, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k582296\/f25.item\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k582296\/f25.item<\/span><\/a>&gt; (accessed on 7 August 2024). Paolo Cecchi discusses these issues extensively in \u2018Il rapporto tra testo letterario e intonazione musicale\u2019 (see n.&#160;6).<a href=\"#fnref22\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn23\">\n<p>The necessarily formal and theoretical study that we are conducting inevitably risks distancing us from the living context of musical production, making us forget that in the 16th century music, like any other artistic form, was learned <em>in the workshop<\/em>, through an interaction between master and disciple: the pupil not only received lessons but was present (and very often helping the master) during any direct realisation of the artistic-musical event.<a href=\"#fnref23\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn24\">\n<p>Ercole Bottrigari, <em>Il Desiderio overo de\u2019 concerti di varij strumenti musicali (Venice: Ricciardo Amadino, 1594)<\/em><span class=\"Emphasis\">, 12, <\/span><em>&lt;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k58168t\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k58168t<\/span><\/a><em>&gt; <\/em>(accessed on 17&#160;July 2024).<a href=\"#fnref24\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn25\">\n<p>Cf. Peter Schubert,\u2018Teaching Theory Through Improvisation\u2019, in: <em>Studies in Historical Improvisation: From Cantare super Librum to Partimenti<\/em>,ed. Massimiliano Guido (New York, 2017), 175\u201384. To delve deeper into the theme of imitation and the creative\/compositional process in the Renaissance cf. Honey Meconi, \u2018Does Imitatio Exist?\u2019, in: <em>JM<\/em> 12 (1994), 152\u201378, and the studies of Philippe Canguilhelm respectively, especially: <em>L\u2019improvisation polyphonique \u00e0 la Renaissance<\/em> (Paris, 2015), and: \u2018Singing upon the Book According to Vicente Lusitano\u2019, in: <em>EMH<\/em> 30 (2011), 55\u2013103. Concerning rhetoric in music cf. the contributions in: <em>Rhetorik. Ein internationales Jahrbuch<\/em>, vol. 35: <em>Rhetorik und Musik<\/em>, ed. Hartmut Krones (Berlin\/Boston, 2016).<a href=\"#fnref25\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h4 id=\"6\">Bibliography<\/h4>\n<p><\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Adriano Banchieri, <em>Cartella musicale nel canto figurato fermo e &#173;contrapunto<\/em> (Venedig: Giacomo Vincenti, 1614), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/158853\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/&#173;158853<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Adriano Banchieri, <em>Conclusioni nel suono dell\u2019organo<\/em> (Bologna: Giovanni Rossi, 1609), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/115414\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/115414<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Adriano Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino<\/em> (Venice: Ricciardo Amadino, 1605), &lt;https:\/\/books.google.at\/books?id=yzYzAQAAMAAJ&amp;hl=de&amp;pg=PA36 &#8211; v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Adriano Banchieri, <em>L\u2019Organo suonarino (Venezia 1605)<\/em>, ed. Edoardo Bellotti, Tastata 31 (Latina, 2014)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Elinore Barber and Walter B. Hewlett, \u2018Riemenschneider Bach Institute Vault Holdings, facsimile series: \u2026 <em>Wegweiser \u2026 die Kunst die Orgel recht zu schlagen<\/em>, Part i\u2013vi\u2019, in: <em>Bach. Journal of the Riemenschneider Bach Institute <\/em>18 (1987), no.&#160;1, 25\u201336; no.&#160;2, 4\u201335, 37\u201363; no.&#160;3, 11\u201337; no.&#160;4, 29\u201354; 19 (1988), no.&#160;2, 25\u201356; no.&#160;3, 19\u201374<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Edoardo Bellotti,<em> \u2018<\/em>Adriano Banchieri and the Theory and Practice of Counterpoint and Basso Continuo in the Seventeenth Century\u2019, in: <em>The Organ Yearbook<\/em> 47 (2018), 49\u201378<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Edoardo Bellotti, \u2018Basso continuo e contrappunto nelle fonti seicentesche: un moderno approccio alla didattica musicale\u2019, in: <em>Basso Continuo in Italy: Sources, Pedagogy and Performance<\/em>, ed. Marcello Mazzetti (Turnhout, 2023), 265\u201384<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Pietro Bembo, <em>Prose<\/em> [\u2026] <em>della volgar lingua<\/em> (Venice, 1525), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb10142586\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb10142586<\/a>&gt; <\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Andrea Bornstein, <em>Two-Part Italian Didactic Music: Printed Collections of the Re&#173;&#173;naissance and Baroque (1521\u20131744)<\/em>, 3&#160;vols. (Bologna, 2004)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Ercole Bottrigari, <em>Il Desiderio overo de\u2019 concerti di varij strumenti musicali <\/em>(Venice: Ricciardo Amadino, 1594), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k58168t\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k58168t<\/span><\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Hernando de Cabez\u00f3n, <em>Obras de m\u00fasica<\/em> (Madrid: Francisco S\u00e1nchez, 1578), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/rism\/BI\/1578\/24\">http:\/\/purl.org\/rism\/BI\/1578\/24<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Philippe Canguilhelm, <em>L\u2019improvisation polyphonique \u00e0 la Renaissance<\/em> (Paris, 2015)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Philippe Canguilhelm, \u2018Singing upon the Book According to Vicente Lusitano\u2019, in: <em>EMH<\/em> 30 (2011), 55\u2013103<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Paolo Cecchi, \u2018Il rapporto tra testo letterario e intonazione musicale nei teorici italiani di fine Cinquecento\u2019, in: <em>Claudio Monteverdi: Studi e prospettive: Atti del convegno, Mantova, 21\u201324 ottobre 1993<\/em>, ed. Paola Besutti, Teresa M. Gialdroni and Rodolfo Baroncini (Florence, 1998), 549\u2013605<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Giuseppe Clericetti, \u2018Le composizioni per strumenti a tastiera di Andrea Gabrieli. Catalogo, bibliografia, varianti\u2019, in: <em>L\u2019Organo<\/em> 25\/26 (1987\/88), 9\u201361<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Girolamo Diruta, <em>Seconda parte del Transilvano Dialogo diviso in quattro libri<\/em> (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti, 1609), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bibliotecamusica.it\/cmbm\/viewschedatwbca.asp?path=\/cmbm\/images\/ripro\/gaspari\/_D\/D019\/\">http:\/\/www.bibliotecamusica.it\/cmbm\/viewschedatwbca.asp?path=\/cmbm\/images\/ripro\/gaspari\/_D\/D019\/<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Girolamo Diruta, <em>Il Transilvano dialogo sopra il vero modo di sonar<\/em> <em>organi, &amp; istromenti da penna<\/em> (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti, 1593), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/hdl.loc.gov\/loc.music\/muspre1800.100422\">http:\/\/hdl.loc.gov\/loc.music\/muspre1800.100422<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Andrea Gabrieli, <em>Ricercari <\/em>[\u2026] <em>libro secondo<\/em> (Venice: Angelo Gardano, 1595), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-56111\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-56111<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Andrea Gabrieli, <em>Il terzo libro de ricercari<\/em> (Venice: Angelo Gardano, 1596), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-55399\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3931\/e-rara-55399<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Massimiliano Guido and Peter Schubert, \u2018Unpacking the Box in Frescobaldi\u2019s Ricercari of 1615\u2019, in: <em>Music Theory Online <\/em>20 (2014), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mtosmt.org\/issues\/mto.14.20.2\/mto.14.20.2.guido_schubert.html\">https:\/\/mtosmt.org\/issues\/mto.&#173;14.20.2\/mto.14.20.2.guido_schubert.html<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Honey Meconi, \u2018Does Imitatio Exist?\u2019, in: <em>JM<\/em> 12 (1994), 152\u201378<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Musica nova accomodata per cantar e sonar sopra organi<\/em> (Venice: Andrea Arrivabene, 1540) (RISM 1540<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">22<\/span>, Brown 1540<span class=\"Tiefgestellt\">3<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Musicque de joye<\/em> (Lyon: Jacques Moderne [1544]) (RISM c.1550<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">24<\/span>, Brown 154?<span class=\"Tiefgestellt\">6<\/span>), &lt;https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Musicque_de_joye_(Moderne,_Jacques) &#8211; IMSLP58337&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Mariateresa Muttoni, \u2018Modi dell\u2019improvvisazione nelle intavolature tedesche per organo fra Quattro e Cinquecento\u2019, in: <em>Sull\u2019improvvisazione<\/em>, ed. Claudio Toscani (Lucca, 1998), 11\u201362<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Orgelst\u00fccke aus der Orgelschule Wegweiser (Augsburg 1668). Kurze und leichte Pr\u00e4ambula und Versus in den acht Kirchentonarten<\/em>, ed. Rudolf Walter, S\u00fcddeutsche Orgelmeister des Barock 8 (Alt\u00f6tting, 1964)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Diego Ortiz, <em>Tratado de glosas sobre clausulas y otros generos de puntos en la musica de violones \/ El primo libro<\/em> [\u2026] <em>nel qual si tratta delle glosse sopra le cadenze &amp; altre sorte de punti in la musica del violone<\/em> (Rome: Valerio &amp; Luigi Dorico, 1553), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000037748\">http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000037748<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Bernardo Pasquini, <em>Opere per Tastiera. Vol&#160;VII: London, Bl Ms.Add. 31501, II\u2013III<\/em>, ed. Armando Carideo, Tastata 19 (Latina, 2006)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Prose e rime di Pietro Bembo<\/em>, ed. Carlo Dionisotti (Turin, 1966)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">August Valentin Rabe, \u2018<em>Benutze nun die Tafeln selbst<\/em>\u2019<em>. Sammeln, Schreiben, Lehren und \u00dcben mit einem Fundamentum (ca.&#160;1440\u20131550)<\/em>, Wiener Forum f\u00fcr \u00e4ltere Musikgeschichte 14 (Vienna, 2025)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">August Valentin Rabe, \u2018Singing, Reading, Writing, Playing: Practising with Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda\u2019, in: <em>\u2018Universum rei harmonicae concentum absolvunt\u2019: The Harpsichord in the Sixteenth Century<\/em>, ed. Augusta Campagne and Markus Grassl (Vienna, 2024), 66\u201378, &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp03-singing-reading\/\">https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp03-singing-reading\/<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Rhetorik. Ein internationales Jahrbuch<\/em>, vol. 35: <em>Rhetorik und Musik<\/em>, ed. Hartmut Krones (Berlin\/Boston, 2016)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Tom\u00e1s de Santa Mar\u00eda, <em>Libro llamado arte de ta\u00f1er fantas\u00eda<\/em> (Valladolid: Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, 1565), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000158382&amp;page=1\">http:\/\/bdh-rd.bne.es\/viewer.vm?id=0000158382&amp;page=1<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Peter Schubert, \u2018Counterpoint Pedagogy in the Renaissance\u2019, in: <em>The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory<\/em>, ed. Thomas Christensen (Cambridge, 2002), 503\u201333<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Peter Schubert, \u2018From Improvisation to Composition: Three Sixteenth-Century Case Studies\u2019,in: Rob C. Wegman, Johannes Menke and Peter Schubert,<em> Improvising Early Music<\/em>,Collected Writings of the Orpheus Institute 11(Leuven, 2014), 93\u2013130<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Peter Schubert,\u2018Teaching Theory Through Improvisation\u2019, in: <em>Studies in Historical Improvisation: From Cantare super Librum to Partimenti<\/em>,ed. Massimiliano Guido (New York, 2017), 175\u201384<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Spiridion a Monte Carmelo, <em>Instructio nova pro pulsandis organis, spinettis, manuchordiis etc<\/em>.(Bamberg: Johann Georg Seuffert \/ Johann Jacob Immel, 1669\u20131672), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Nova_Instructio_(Spiridion)\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Nova_Instructio_(Spiridion)<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Spiridionis a Monte Carmelo Nova instructio pro pulsandis organis, spinettis, manuchordiis etc<\/em>., ed. Edoardo Bellotti, Tastature 11 (Colledara, 2003)<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Antonio Valente, <em>Versi spirituali sopra tutte le note, con diversi canoni spartiti per sonar negli organi<\/em> [\u2026] <em>libro secondo<\/em> (Naples: Eredi di Mattio Cancer, 1580), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/907887\">https:\/\/imslp.org\/wiki\/Special:ReverseLookup\/907887<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\"><em>Kurtzer jedoch gr\u00fcndlicher Wegweiser<\/em> [\u2026] <em>die Orgel recht zu schlagen<\/em> (Augsburg: Jacob Koppmayer, 1689), &lt;<a href=\"http:\/\/data.onb.ac.at\/rep\/10597330\">http:\/\/data.onb.ac.at\/rep\/10597330<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Johannes Woltz, <em>Nova musices organicae tabulatura<\/em> (Basel: Johann Jacob Genath, 1617), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb00050860\">https:\/\/mdz-nbn-resolving.de\/details:bsb00050860<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Gioseffo Zarlino, <em>Le istitutioni harmoniche<\/em> (Venice, 1558), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/leistitutionihar00zarl\">https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/leistitutionihar00zarl<\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n<p class=\"bibliography\">Gioseffo Zarlino, <em>Sopplimenti musicali<\/em> (Venice: Francesco de i Francesci Senese, 1588), &lt;<a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k582296\/f25.item\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/bpt6k582296\/f25.item<\/span><\/a>&gt;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Between Keyboard Pedagogy and Performance Practice Edoardo Belotti (\u2020) &nbsp; Foreword For many centuries, composer and performer were very often the same person. Especially for a keyboard player, improvising was the normal way of performing. Very rarely was he requested to perform music composed by others and, when he did that, he played music of &hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[271],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-7895","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-harpsichord-in-the-sixteenth-century-2-italy"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v26.9 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>The Rhetoric of Invertible Counterpoint in the Sixteenth Century &#8211; mdwPress<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp017-004\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The Rhetoric of Invertible Counterpoint in the Sixteenth Century &#8211; mdwPress\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Between Keyboard Pedagogy and Performance Practice Edoardo Belotti (\u2020) &nbsp; Foreword For many centuries, composer and performer were very often the same person. 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