{"id":7622,"date":"2026-03-31T11:10:02","date_gmt":"2026-03-31T09:10:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/?p=7622"},"modified":"2026-03-31T11:29:38","modified_gmt":"2026-03-31T09:29:38","slug":"mdwp008-004","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/en\/mdwp008-004\/","title":{"rendered":"Creolizing"},"content":{"rendered":"<style>\n        .tsquotation strong {<br \/>\n            font-weight: bold;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n        .tsquotation em {<br \/>\n            font-style: italic !important;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n        .bibliography {<br \/>\n            margin-top: -1em !important;<br \/>\n            padding-left: 22px;<br \/>\n            text-indent: -22px;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n        figure {<br \/>\n            margin: 0;<br \/>\n        }<br \/>\n.fig-row{\n    display:flex;\n    gap: 20px;\n    align-items:flex-start;\n    justify-content:center;\n    flex-wrap:wrap; \n  }\n  .fig{\n    margin:0;\n    width:30%;          \n    min-width:240px;    \n  }\n  .fig-img{\n    width:100%;\n    height:auto;\n    display:block;\n  }\n  .fig .caption-text{\n    display:block;\n    margin-top:6px;\n    font-size:0.9em;\n    line-height:1.25;\n  }\n    <\/style>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"one_half\">\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class='bdaia-btns bdaia-btn-medium' style=\"background:#b2b2b2 !important;color:#000000 !important;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-003\/\" style=\"color:#000000 !important;\">&#129028;<\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"one_half last\">\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\"><span class='bdaia-btns bdaia-btn-medium' style=\"background:#b2b2b2 !important;color:#000000 !important;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-005\" style=\"color:#000000 !important;\">&#129030;<\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"clear-fix\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"bdaia-toggle close\"><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-open\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio 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ZP_ATTR\">%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%2275KZDHUJ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A4511395%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Annu%5Cu00df%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222025%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BAnnu%26%23xDF%3B%2C%20Evelyn.%202025.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BDirty%20Dragging.%20Performative%20Transpositions%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B.%20mdwPress.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-ItemURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.14361%5C%2F9783839474754%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.14361%5C%2F9783839474754%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B.%20%26lt%3Ba%20title%3D%26%23039%3BCite%20in%20RIS%20Format%26%23039%3B%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-CiteRIS%26%23039%3B%20data-zp-cite%3D%26%23039%3Bapi_user_id%3D4511395%26amp%3Bitem_key%3D75KZDHUJ%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bjavascript%3Avoid%280%29%3B%26%23039%3B%26gt%3BCite%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%20%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22book%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Dirty%20Dragging.%20Performative%20Transpositions%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Evelyn%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Annu%5Cu00df%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Dirty%20Dragging%20contributes%20to%20queer%20retheorizations%20and%20explores%20the%20ambivalence%20of%20transgressive%20performances%20under%20apartheid%2C%20Nazism%2C%20and%20Jim%20Crow%20through%20a%20transoceanic%20lens.%20The%20book%20takes%20up%20the%20ambivalence%20of%20%5Cu201cdirty%5Cu201d%20performance%20modes%5Cu2014spanning%20drag%20and%20carnival%20to%20propaganda%5Cu2014and%20extends%20readings%20of%20gender%20bending%20by%20incorporating%20perspectives%20on%20blackface%20and%20%5Cu201cracialized%20drag.%5Cu201d%20It%20%20explores%20violent%2C%20locally%20specific%20mobilizations%20of%20the%20transgressive%20along%20with%20the%20ways%20in%20which%20queer%20and%20creolized%20forms%20of%20performance%20intertwine%20to%20oppose%20identitarian%20boundaries.%20Given%20the%20current%20slide%20into%20right-wing%20authoritarianism%2C%20the%20book%20thereby%20gestures%20toward%20the%20potential%20joy%20of%20collectively%20making%20societal%20conditions%20dance%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222025%22%2C%22originalDate%22%3A%22%22%2C%22originalPublisher%22%3A%22%22%2C%22originalPlace%22%3A%22%22%2C%22format%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISBN%22%3A%22978-3-8376-7475-0%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%22%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.14361%5C%2F9783839474754%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%22%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22en%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22RJ2DWDIJ%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-03-11T09%3A28%3A12Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D<\/span>\n\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"zp-ID-7622-4511395-75KZDHUJ\" data-zp-author-date='Annu\u00df-2025' data-zp-date-author='2025-Annu\u00df' data-zp-date='2025' data-zp-year='2025' data-zp-itemtype='book' class=\"zp-Entry zpSearchResultsItem\">\n<div class=\"csl-bib-body\" style=\"line-height: 1.35; padding-left: 1em; text-indent:-1em;\">\n  <div class=\"csl-entry\">Annu\u00df, Evelyn. 2025. <i>Dirty Dragging. Performative Transpositions<\/i>. mdwPress. <a class='zp-ItemURL' href='https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14361\/9783839474754'>https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14361\/9783839474754<\/a>. <a title='Cite in RIS Format' class='zp-CiteRIS' data-zp-cite='api_user_id=4511395&item_key=75KZDHUJ' href='javascript:void(0);'>Cite<\/a> <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-Entry .zpSearchResultsItem -->\n\t\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-zp-SEO-Content -->\n\t\t<\/div><!-- .zp-List -->\n\t<\/div><!--.zp-Zotpress-->\n\n\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"bdaia-toggle close\"><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-open\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-up\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><h4 class=\"bdaia-toggle-head toggle-head-close\"><span class=\"bdaia-sio bdaia-sio-angle-down\"><\/span><span class=\"txt\">Outline<\/span><\/h4><div class=\"toggle-content\"><p>\n<a href=\"#1\">Carnivalizing(Guys, Klopse, Atjas)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#2\">Dirty Facing (Jim Crow, Zip Coons)<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#3\">Blackface, Moffies<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#4\">Reenacting<\/a><br \/>\n<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n<hr>\n<p><!-- \n\n<p style=\"text-align: right;\">[btn btnlink=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/10.1515_9783839425015-001.pdf\" btnsize=\"medium\" bgcolor=\"#b2b2b2\" txtcolor=\"#000000\" btnnewt=\"1\" nofollow=\"1\"]CHAPTER PDF <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\" style=\"vertical-align: middle\" alt=\"Download-Logo\" width=\"17\" height=\"17\">[\/btn]\n\n --><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town.jpg\" alt=\"A black-and-white photo shows graffiti on a house wall (\u201cYou are now in Fairyland\u201d), beside which two children are walking.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1186\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7301\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town-300x254.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town-1024x867.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town-150x127.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town-768x651.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/05_-District-Six-vor-den-Zwangsraeumungen-undatierter-Zeitungsausschnitt.-National-Library-of-South-Africa-Cape-Town-850x720.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5:<\/strong> District Six before the forced removals, undated paper clip. National Library of South Africa, Cape Town (PHA 3709 Coons).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>\u201cYOU ARE NOW IN FAIRY LAND\u201d was a famous piece of graffiti on one of the houses in District Six, later demolished, whose remains are made visible in Kewpie\u2019s dragging rubble series<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as if a kind of queer crossing had taken place. Today, many view the area as a memorial site for an almost fairytale-like neighborhood, where fairies<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>queers<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>once found refuge. Others, however, warn against the depoliticizing pitfalls of romanticized nostalgia for District Six, arguing that commemorating the displaced community can obscure a history of relative privilege and potential complicity within apartheid\u2019s divide-and-rule policies.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn98\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref98\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>98<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> <\/p>\n<p>The majority of District Six\u2019s population was classified as \u201cwithout a tribe,\u201d or \u201cColoured,\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn99\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref99\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>99<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> during the enforcement of the Group Areas Act between the 1960s and 1980s, as the apartheid regime occupied the inner city&#160;and \u201ccleansed\u201d it of traces of creolized life. Authorities arbitrarily sorted &#173;people across families and neighborhoods according to skin color and hair texture,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn100\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref100\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>100<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> often struggling to classify those living near the former port. Unlike the fixed categories of \u201cAsian,\u201d \u201cBantu,\u201d and \u201cWhite,\u201d \u201cColoured\u201dbecame an intermediate designation, marking ambiguous origins. Visible signs of creolization thus became the basis for imposed racial identities.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn101\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref101\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>101<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> This classification was also entangled with racist sexualization, as \u201cColoured\u201d was linked to the effects of illegalized relationships and supposed miscegenation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn102\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref102\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>102<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Kewpie\u2019s drag photos emerged in this political context, bearing witness to the potentially nonidentitarian, creolized cultural techniques of \u201cindigenizing\u201d that developed in District Six.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn103\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref103\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>103<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Scholars such as Zimitri Erasmus and Mohamed Adhikari advocate for rehistoricizing \u201cColoured\u201d to focus on social processes rather than rigid categories.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn104\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref104\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>104<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Erasmus, in particular, emphasizes that creolization is shaped by transcultural practices produced through colonial disruption.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn105\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref105\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>105<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> This perspective highlights the transformation of social asymmetries, complex relations of inequality, and the political possibilities of mimesis. Transposing Glissant\u2019s Antilles-based approach to the South African context, Erasmus points to forms of exclusion and resistance that are both flexible and heterogeneous. From the Cape, she foregrounds the \u201cdirtiness\u201d of historical and social connections and performative practices.<\/p>\n<p>In Iberian colonialism, <em>creole<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>\u201cthick with interrelated and traveling meanings\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn106\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref106\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>106<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was originally a paraphrase of <em>mestizaje<\/em>. Historically, it described those of European descent born in the colonies, but as colonial elites pursued \u201cself-indigenization\u201d and postcolonial independence, the term became associated with the subalterns deemed \u201cracially impure\u201d and lacking a culture of their own. Under the apartheid regime, the Population Registration Act No.&#160;30 of 1950 defined <em>Coloured <\/em>as \u201cnot a white person or a native.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn107\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref107\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>107<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As a result, the inner-city population, including Kewpie, was forcibly relocated to townships, where they were further stratified by pigmentation and subjected to varying degrees of precarization.<\/p>\n<p>The urban contact zones of the Cape expose the violent arbitrariness of racial classification with particular clarity.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn108\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref108\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>108<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The Cape, at the tip of the African continent, is where the Indian and Atlantic Oceans meet. In the port area of that time, the contradictory and competing histories of European colonial expansion into Asia intertwined with the transatlantic slave trade and the mass production of \u201cbare labor\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a prerequisite for the increasingly industrialized capitalist <em>Vergesellschaftung<\/em> within a new world system.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn109\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref109\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>109<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> These histories are marked by fundamental traumas shaped by overexploitation, forced migrations, corresponding forms of life, and necessarily arbitrary connections between all kinds of people subjected to the prevailing conditions. They inevitably gave rise to local performative cultural techniques, which<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as seen in Kewpie\u2019s photographs<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>can be read as forms of nongenealogical, globalized ways of relating.<\/p>\n<p>As Katja Diefenbach discusses with regard to \u201cthe so-called triangular trade initiated by Portugal and Spain between Europe, West Africa, and the Americas,\u201d the Dutch trading companies constructed \u201can enormous ensemble of unequal trade relations, capital ties and power differentials spanning the seas, bringing heterogeneous hemispheres, places and times into violent contact with each other through the slave trade, the plantation economy, mining and seafaring, triggering a process of creolization without precedent in history.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn110\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref110\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>110<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As she continues: this \u201cimmanent transformation of the powers to act from below is eminently political \u2026 : it transcends the ideational nexus of origin, culture and religion. From a Spinozist perspective, the conversion of the socio-military capabilities of regional slave dealers into forces of opposition to slavery manifests a universal power shared by all humans to break with their own traditions, origins, cultures and religions and build a more rational and freer society from below. It demonstrates humans\u2019 capacity to attain an immanent transformation of their powers without transcendental mediation.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn111\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref111\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>111<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>At the South African Cape, creolization processes emerged beyond what Paul Gilroy calls the Black Atlantic,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn112\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref112\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>112<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> extending particularly into the South Atlantic and Pacific regions. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Western Cape became a stopover for commercial ships of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) on their way from Europe to Batavia (present-day Jakarta). As this outpost expanded into a colony, many people at the Cape<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>including political prisoners from Southeast Asia<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>were systematically enslaved or subjected to indenture.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn113\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref113\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>113<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The Cape thus became a site where different performative practices intertwined, recalling the \u201cdirtiness\u201d of early globalization.<\/p>\n<p>Initially, Cape Town served as a refreshment station for European trading ships traveling to and from Southeast Asia.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn114\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref114\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>114<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Straddling the trade routes of the two oceans, it occupied a strategically contested position between East and West, fought over by competing European colonial powers. As Nadia Davids notes, this struggle resulted in \u201cone of the most culturally heterogeneous regions on earth between the early 1700s and late 1800s.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn115\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref115\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>115<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The harbor area thus became a contact zone where people from vastly different backgrounds converged: the local Khoikhoi population, abductees and enslaved people, colonial officials and settlers, travelers, sailors, and refugees. Gilroy conceptualizes the Black Atlantic as a transcultural, international formation with a \u201crhizomorphic, fractal structure.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn116\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref116\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>116<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, the Cape\u2019s history is also deeply intertwined with both Europe\u2019s prior colonial expansion into Asia and precolonial trade networks between Asia and Africa. Ultimately, the Cape is a reminder that the reach of the revolting \u201cmany-headed hydra,\u201d which Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker describe as the flipside of colonial expansion, extends beyond the Atlantic<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>resisting emerging racial classifications while roaming the world\u2019s harbor taverns.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn117\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref117\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>117<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>By 1808, approximately 63,000 people had been forcibly deported to the Cape Colony. They left lasting traces through their languages and cultural practices, which were reshaped as they were forced to form new relationships under conditions of displacement. The majority came from Indonesia, Ceylon, and India, as well as from the southern Philippines, Persia, Macao, Madagascar, East Africa, and Mozambique. The VOC relied on preexisting forms of enslavement in its Southeast Asian colonies and adapted them at the Cape to suit its economic interests. To develop Cape Town as a port city and ensure local supplies, specific modes of exploitation were transferred and modernized<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>techniques that had long benefited the VOC in the Indian Ocean and helped drive the capitalization of the world.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn118\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref118\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>118<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At the same time, colonial business enterprises recruited labor primarily in Holland and Germany. Alongside sailors and adventurers came people fleeing religious persecution or famine in Europe.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn119\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref119\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>119<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Over time, diverse precarious groups formed a new class society shaped by European expansionist policies, often with fluid biographies revealing overlapping histories of colonial exploitation, complicity, and resistance.<\/p>\n<p>The history of the Cape is of exemplary relevance to contemporary debates on critical race theory, as it lays bare the messiness of colonial conditions. By 1800, when the British Empire replaced the VOC\u2019s rule and made Cape Town the capital of the Cape Colony, European settlerism had become increasingly differentiated. Southern Africa was drawn deeper into the immanently contradictory global capitalist economy of the nineteenth century.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn120\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref120\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>120<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In this messy context, a new biologistic form of racism emerged, reinforced by segregation laws. Class differences became increasingly racialized, with skin color turned into a central marker of distinction.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn121\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref121\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>121<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>However, the British colonial division of the population into black and white proved inadequate in accounting for the afterlife of enslavement, which had linked the Indies and the Atlantic.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn122\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref122\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>122<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> By 1904, the category \u201cColoured\u201d was introduced as a supplement to this arbitrary binary. In any case, many in Cape Town defied classification<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>they shared a commonality in their nonconformity to rigid racial attributions: <\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">They are neither English, nor French, nor Dutch. Nor do they form an original class as Africans, but a singular mix of all together which has not yet acquired a conscience, and is therefore almost impossible to be exactly represented.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn123\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref123\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>123<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>This is how Robert Semple, a Boston-born traveler raised in England, described the population of Cape Town in his 1803 travelogue. What he perceived as a form of backwardness can, in turn, be understood as a specific prefiguration of today\u2019s globalized modes of subjectivation<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>an effect of heterogeneous creolization processes that contradict prevailing governmental policies of segregation.<\/p>\n<p>Overlapping colonization and migration movements brought about social and cultural encounters that had the potential to subvert existing power structures and concomitant categorizations. Like a transoceanic tavern, District Six (located near the harbor)<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and later, the railroads, fish factories, and other industries<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>gathered a motley crew.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn124\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref124\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>124<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Denis-Constant Martin describes its population before the forced removals as \u201cextremely mixed including poor European migrants and African workers, American sailors and Asian shopkeepers, and of course a large number of colored workers, traders and artisans. The population of District Six was divided according to descent, religion and social status, but there were no racial antagonisms. On the contrary, beyond the divisions, most inhabitants shared the same pleasures and entertainments.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn125\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref125\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>125<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In this \u201cfairy land,\u201d a space characterized by an assemblage of languages, religious affiliations, and cultural practices<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and by poverty and violence<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>people lived jumbled together, defying governmental distinctions based on skin color, faith, and descent. They exposed the hypercomplexities of colonial history that apartheid sought to dominate.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn126\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref126\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>126<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>\u201cApartheid,\u201d Zimitri Erasmus concludes in <em>Race Otherwise<\/em>, \u201cflattened South Africa\u2019s complex entanglement with Indian and South Atlantic Ocean histories into a racial category<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Coloured.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn127\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref127\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>127<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Erasmus emphasizes how a more nuanced perspective on South Africa\u2019s colonial histories can challenge pigmentocratic interpretations of \u201ccoloniality\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn128\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref128\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>128<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> and racism:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">The Indian Ocean can be thought of as an emergent epistemic space<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a domain of lived experience that is configured by interconnected histories; by the exchange and movement of people, things and ideas; and by the circulation of technologies, communities and institutions; it is a space that enables critical inquiry into the normative ways of knowing.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn129\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref129\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>129<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Performative practices, in particular, reveal the heterogeneous centrifugal forces of global-historical lines of flight legible in her description. Inextricable amalgamations of cultural repertoires conflicted with arbitrary binaries<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn130\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref130\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>130<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as exemplified in the local creolized carnival. While the focus thus far has been on Kewpie\u2019s existential dragging, I will now discuss a temporary state of exception<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a laboratory of an <em>imagined elsewhere<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>that continues to mobilize queer performance.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"1\">Carnivalizing (Guys, Klopse, Atjas)<\/h4>\n<p>Every year around January&#160;2, during <em>Tweede Nuwe Jaar<\/em>, an inner-city carnival parade takes place between District Six and the predominantly Muslim Bo-Kaap, formerly known as the Malay Quarter, which was also classified as Colouredunder apartheid.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn131\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref131\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>131<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The parade stops in front of both Christian churches and mosques, reflecting how religious affiliations are interwoven through the families of its participants. It marks the beginning of a two-month season of weekly stadium competitions, followed by street parties in the townships. Unlike the official carnival in March, this event is rarely mentioned online or in tourist advertisements. Today, it serves as a symbolic reclaiming of the streets by descendants of former inhabitants, who now live in the townships and are bussed into the city center by their clubs for this one day. Their act of return and reclaiming resonates with Kewpie\u2019s rubble series.<\/p>\n<p>The carnival is believed to have originated in New Year\u2019s parades as early as the 1820s. By the 1830s, in the wake of abolition, the transition from slavery to indenture and the emergence of new forms of exploitation, carnival became linked to a new, postcolonial calendar<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>one in which the memory of emancipation and the scarcely documented revolts of the enslaved took on an afterlife. Traces of these revolts remain embedded in a carnival repertoire that resists genealogical notions, instead emphasizing referential slipperiness. It testifies to a creolized knowledge of the entangled temporality and the political dimension of citation, also closely related to Kewpie\u2019s dirty dragging.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cStreet Scene<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Emancipation Day\u201d is the caption of a drawing by Heinrich Egersd\u00f6rfer, published in the <em>South African Illustrated News<\/em> in 1885. Amid the proliferation of newspapers in the urban centers of the colonies, illustrated magazines became harbingers of a new image-based mass culture<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>one that, from the 1880s onward, increasingly shaped representations of carnival. Egersd\u00f6rfer, who grew up in Germany, can be read as depicting Cape Town as a creolized contact zone. His street scene features two life-size, white-masked dolls<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>one male, one female. The grotesquely disfigured mask on the left resembles a skull, while the one on the right evokes a clown, together forming a kind of Janus head. The puppeteers and their accompanying band are dressed as firemen. Egersd\u00f6rfer contrasts their faces, as well as those of the surrounding children, with the stark white puppet masks. In the background, a laughing family, dressed in Muslim garb, appears in a range of differing shades. The image thus presents a kind of diverse acting in concert on the street<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>an assembly shaped by people coming together through the dragging of artificial faces and complementary figures.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885.jpg\" alt=\"A black-and-white drawing shows a street scene in which two costumed people hold up two life-sized dolls with face masks, surrounded by others.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1133\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7302\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885-300x243.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885-1024x829.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885-150x121.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885-768x622.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/06_Heinrich-Egersdoerfer-Street-Scene-\u2013-Emancipation-Day.-South-African-Illustrated-News-1885-850x688.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class =\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 6:<\/b> Heinrich Egersd\u00f6rfer: Street Scene<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Emancipation Day. <em>South African Illustrated News <\/em>1885: 580. National Library of South Africa, Cape Town.<\/span>\t\t\t<\/p>\n<div>\n<p>Martin interprets the caption provided by the <em>South African Illustrated News<\/em> as signaling a connection between the carnival season and political revolts.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn132\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref132\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>132<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> He argues that the procession-like celebrations for Emancipation Day on December&#160;1, 1834<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>which themselves drew on military and Salvation Army parades<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>gained a creolized afterlife in carnival. And yet, even though these cultural performances of a globalized crowd amalgamated puppetry, Muslim dance performances, the Kalifa, and masked house visits (similar to European rural winter customs), they did not simply imitate recurring rituals.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn133\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref133\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>133<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Instead, locally indigenized, their specific entanglements respond to the political dynamics of their time and place.<\/p>\n<p>Martin associates Egersd\u00f6rfer\u2019s street scene with the traditional start of Cape Town\u2019s carnival season on November&#160;5<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Guy Fawkes Day. In England and its colonies, the day is marked by doll burnings to commemorate the suppression of an assassination attempt against the crown at the onset of British expansion.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn134\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref134\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>134<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, in Egersd\u00f6rfer\u2019s scene, the Guys<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as the dolls are called in Cape Town<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>are transformed into an attraction for all kinds of people. Their historical reference appears secondary; rather than directly invoking Fawkes as a historical figure, the Guys become an allegory of revolt within a playful performance that disregards the dolls\u2019 original, local significance. They can be interpreted as both colonial and underdog figures<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>ambiguous personae through which social conditions are negotiated. The depicted assembly thus appears to engage in a local context with unfulfilled political promises, reworking a prior revolt through an emptied or resignified performative citation. <\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019.jpg\" alt=\"A color photo shows people dancing in a stadium; they wear black-red-gold costumes and wave black-red-gold flags.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1051\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7303\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-1024x769.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-768x577.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/07_Karneval-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class =\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 7:<\/b> Carnival, Athlone Stadium, Cape Flats, 2019. Photo: Evelyn Annu\u00df.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Riots and police measures against the street carnival were recorded in 1886, the year after Egersd\u00f6rfer\u2019s drawing was published.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn135\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref135\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>135<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In the twentieth century, the carnival became increasingly organized. Compared to older carnival photos featuring matadors, gorillas, devils, and other figures, capturing a chaotic swarm of masks,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn136\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref136\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>136<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> the appearance of revelers grew more and more standardized. From 1977 to 1989, as public demonstrations faced tighter regulation, the apartheid regime banned this carnival in the inner city under the Riotous Assembly Act. Today, it is subject to crowd control, with barriers preventing physical interaction between maskers and bystanders. The Kaapse Klopse, as the expanding Cape Carnival clubs are called, now appear in coordinated costumes and carry flags that often hijack national colors<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>subverting nationalist symbolism by emptying it out.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection.jpg\" alt=\"A color photo shows a colorfully costumed group with feather decorations and face masks.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1000\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7304\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection-300x214.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection-1024x731.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection-150x107.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection-768x549.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection-104x74.jpg 104w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/08_-Atjas-Carnival-Hartleyvale-Stadium-Observatory-Cape-Town-undatiert.-Kenny-Misroll-Private-Collection-850x607.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class =\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 8:<\/b> Atjas, Carnival, Hartleyvale Stadium, Observatory, Cape Town, undated. Kenny Misroll Private Collection (Cape Town).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>While the singing, performing, and marching competitions in township stadiums remain a local affair, the inner-city parade has increasingly become a tool of city marketing.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn137\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref137\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>137<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, the memory of loosely organized groups of costumed people roaming the streets persists in the appearances of drag queens and other secondary figures who accompany the Klopse<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>smaller, peripheral groups adorned with feathered headdresses that evoke stereotypical images of \u201cAmerindians,\u201d alongside red devil and white fur figures.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn138\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref138\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>138<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Like the Guys, the Atjas<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn139\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref139\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>139<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>possibly a creolized abbreviation of \u201cApaches\u201d<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>recall the potential these parades hold to erupt into revolt, citing figures of indigenous resistance from elsewhere. This act of \u201cplaying Indian\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn140\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref140\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>140<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> appears to be drawn from globalized modern mass culture and, like the colonial reference embedded in the Guys, seems to have little connection to the local context. Yet that displacement is precisely what makes the Atjas a countermodel to colonial settlerism and racist notions of lineage or indigeneity. By invoking fictionalized images of uprisings from elsewhere, the Atjas are akin to the glamorous drag queens like Kewpie, who<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>through their namesakes drawn from Hollywood actresses<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>overaffirm and liquefy standardized beauty ideals of white femininity. Their complementary modes of \u201cmaking a scene\u201d are connected in their use of overtly reinvented elsewheres as a means of resisting local governmental power. As performative transpositions, these practices are also akin to the visual and musical signature of the formerly so-called Coon Carnival<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a local form of \u201cdirty-facing\u201d that carnivalesquely creolizes dominant stagings of racialized drag.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"2\">Dirty Facing (Jim Crow, Zip Coons)<\/h4>\n<p>In Cape Town, T. D. Rice\u2019s song \u201cJump Jim Crow,\u201d associated with blackface, was reportedly heard in the streets and bars as early as the mid-1840s.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn141\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref141\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>141<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As an entr\u2019acte of Americanized yet already creolized European folk theater, Rice\u2019s folkloristic song-and-dance solo<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>featuring the blackened comic figure that he had popularized in the 1830s<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>preceded the later grotesquely standardized minstrel show genre. It reached Cape Town in the second half of the nineteenth century through transcontinental theatrical trade routes, carried by the expanding globalization of entertainment culture.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn142\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref142\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>142<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> From the early 1860s, visiting minstrel troupes, including a group of Christy\u2019s Minstrels, staged musical-theatrical performances of grotesque blackface.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn143\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref143\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>143<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> By the end of the nineteenth century, performances by Black American artists, such as the Virginia Jubilee Singers led by Orpheus M. McAdoo, followed.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn144\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref144\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>144<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In the context of the United States, blackface first emerged as a rowdy, (lumpen-)proletarian theater form in the industrialized North. Often drawing on plantation nostalgia, it conjured an imagined elsewhere that obscured the brutal hyperexploitation of the enslaved. It was a genuinely urban affair, particularly among the white, male industrial proletariat, though it later became a performance outlet for Black entertainers under segregation. Gradually, blackface spread across the Atlantic. The shrewd, unruly <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Jim Crow<\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a creolized comic figuration of a fugitive slave<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was celebrated in London as early as the 1830s before gaining popularity at the Cape. Rice\u2019s tramp, alongside his urban counterpart <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Zip Coon<\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the minstrel stock figure of the Black dandy<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was cast as a trickster personifying ungovernability.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn145\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref145\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>145<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At the Cape, however, blackface from the United States was not only performed for white audiences but also resignified by segments of the population who resisted classification within the racial hierarchy. In this context, blackface also became a mask of revolt.<\/p>\n<div style=\"display:flex; gap:20px; justify-content:center; align-items:flex-start; flex-wrap:nowrap;margin-bottom:20px;\">\n<div style=\"width:30%; min-width:240px;\">\n    <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/09_T.D.-Rice-als-Jim-Crow-1830er-Jahre.-Library-of-Congress-Washington-DC.jpg\"\n         alt=\"A black-and-white drawing shows a leaping, dancing figure in torn men\u2019s clothing.\"\n         style=\"width:100%; height:auto; display:block;\" \/><br \/>\n    <span class=\"caption-text\" style=\"display:block; margin-top:6px;\"><br \/>\n      <strong>Abbildung 9:<\/strong> T. D. Rice as <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Jim Crow<\/span>, 1830er-Jahre. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (2004669584).<br \/>\n    <\/span>\n  <\/div>\n<div style=\"width:30%; min-width:240px;\">\n    <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/10_-Zip-Coon-Sheet-Music-1830er-Jahre.-Library-of-Congress-Washington-DC.jpg\"\n         alt=\"A black-and-white drawing shows a dandyishly dressed figure in a frock coat, posing with top hat, and a walking stick.\"\n         style=\"width:100%; height:auto; display:block;\" \/><br \/>\n    <span class=\"caption-text\" style=\"display:block; margin-top:6px;\"><br \/>\n      <strong>Abbildung 10:<\/strong> <span class=\"Kapitaelchen\">Zip Coon<\/span>, sheet music, 1830s. Library of Congress, Washington, DC (00650780).<br \/>\n    <\/span>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Presumably carried to the Cape through sheet music with illustrated covers or by singing sailors, the popular hit \u201cJump Jim Crow\u201d had already reached the harbor area before increasingly racist minstrel shows began appearing on established stages. While already creolized, <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Jim Crow <\/span>and <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Zip Coon<\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>figures that blend the darkly masked <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Arlecchino <\/span>of European folk theater and its descendants with transatlantic mimicry<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>became popular in District Six just a decade after emancipation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn146\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref146\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>146<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> By this time, the transition to postslavery was already marked by regulations comparable to the later so-called Jim Crow conditions in the United States<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a form of segregation that prefigured apartheid. In the 1840s, when \u201cJump Jim Crow\u201d arrived at the Cape, Emancipation Day gatherings were reportedly intertwined with the carnival of the subalterns. Blackface became its visual signature, accompanying the transatlantic urban music of the New World. \u201cJump Jim Crow\u201d was thus received as a marker of globalized mass cultural mobility. Under local colonial conditions, this music resonated as the sound of revolt:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">The frivolous coloured inhabitants of Cape Town, who take a holiday on the slightest pretext, indulged their peculiar notions in regard thereto by going about in large bodies dressed most fantastically, carrying \u201cguys,\u201d and headed by blowers of wind and players of stringed instruments, who evoked from their horrible monsters the most discordant and blatant noises that ever deafened human ears.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn147\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref147\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>147<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>In 1886, the year of the carnival riots, the <em>Cape Times<\/em> reported on roving bands in various disguises, carrying dolls and noisily terrorizing their surroundings. In this context, minstrel quotations and carnivalesque appearances began to resonate. And creolized repertoire from elsewhere<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as references to <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Jim Crow <\/span>and <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Zip Coon<\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>became indigenized. The heterogeneous, medley-like music, whose rhythmic changes structure the choral and dance interludes of the local carnival, make the interweaving of different sounds and movements associated with the carnival all the more apparent.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn148\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref148\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>148<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Marching, accelerated polyrhythmic steps, bent knees, hips shifted backward, and isolated hand positions combine movement styles that simultaneously conjure cultural performances from different parts of the world. Rather than evoking the plantation nostalgia of minstrel shows, it was the danceable, creolized sound that may have been one of the primary attractions of this musical import to Cape Town\u2019s harbor area. <\/p>\n<p>This new music, which could already be heard there in the mid-nineteenth century<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>even before the start of the US Civil War and the increasingly overt racism shaping the form and function of minstrel shows<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was also incorporated into local performances. These acts, featuring burnt cork makeup and grotesque costumes, adapted popular US hits for entertainment venues near the harbor.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn149\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref149\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>149<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The first carnival clubs are documented as appearing in the late 1880s, linked to the local music scene. The so-called Coon Carnival, which referenced mass culture from the United States by parading through the streets in corresponding masks, transformed the racist-zoomorphic term for Black comic figures into a mode of assembly in which its original meaning was lost.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn150\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref150\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>150<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Instead, its associations with dirty work and soot-stained faces were involuntarily reactivated.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn151\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref151\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>151<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In this sense, Cape blackface can also be read as a form of dragging<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>of pulling back unforeseeable historical references. In his study of the local carnival and its clubs, the Klopse, Martin traces the term\u2019s history in relation to these performances. He highlights the creolized afterlife of European folk theater, the carnivalesque street performances of the subaltern, and their class-specific references:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\"><em>Klopse <\/em>refers to the origins of the troupes, when they were emanations of social and sports clubs; it therefore seems perfectly legitimate to recycle this word in the 21<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">st<\/span> century. Most of the revellers, however, when speaking in English about themselves and the troupes they affiliate with, will still use the word \u201cCoons\u201d and some will talk about \u201cMinstrels.\u201d \u2026 While it is true that \u201cCoon,\u201d an abbreviation of racoon, became, in the first half of the 19<span class=\"Hochgestellt\">th <\/span>Century [<em>sic<\/em>], associated with blackface minstrelsy and was given a racist meaning, one should not forget that words may have a life of their own and that, when they travel, their meanings change. The signification a word has in the United States cannot and should not be considered as the only signification a word can have in English. In South Africa, the understanding of \u201cCoon\u201d was totally transformed and came to signify the main character and the main mask in the New Year festivals \u2026 As for \u201cMinstrels,\u201d those who object even to this word should be reminded that there were minstrels in Europe long before Europeans set foot in North America, and that they were jesters, jugglers, story tellers, singers and dancers whose \u201cacts\u201d were tightly intertwined with carnivalesque traditions \u2026 <span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn152\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref152\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>152<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>From Martin\u2019s perspective, blackface in the Cape was not a caricature of the Black Cape population but rather a testament to the possibility of recasting the obviously artificial, grotesque mask, which does not fit within the genre of anthropocentric <em>imitatio<\/em>. <\/p>\n<p>Blackface, like the image of the Indians, gained even greater popularity through cinema. When Alan Crosland\u2019s early sound film <em>The Jazz Singer<\/em><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>featuring Al Jolson in blackface<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was first shown in Cape Town in 1929, the creolized-diasporic carnivalesque mask became a defining feature of the carnival.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn153\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref153\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>153<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> It seemed to gesture toward an imaginary, globalized elsewhere. \u201cThrough the mask of the Coon, they have located themselves within the Black Atlantic,\u201d Martin writes.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn154\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref154\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>154<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> He thus highlights that blackface at the Cape was linked to trickster figurations considered to be part of a nonwhite modernity emerging from the United States, aligning with Gilroy\u2019s argument that \u201cblackness can sometimes connote prestige rather than the unadorned inferiority of \u2018bare life.\u2019\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn155\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref155\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>155<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Transposed to the Cape, blackface also mirrored the whiteface of the Guys, the carnival dolls that were already a part of the celebration. It then became an ambivalent sign of potential resistance among an urban population that could not be easily categorized by skin color.<\/p>\n<p>Yet blackface in the Cape can also be read differently. Drawing from his research on English-language stage productions for British Cape audiences in the late nineteenth century, Chinua Thelwell argues in <em>Exporting Jim Crow<\/em>: \u201cAny intellectually responsible explanation for the popularity of blackface minstrelsy must acknowledge the highly racialized worldview of the Cape and Natal colonists.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn156\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref156\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>156<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> However, historical circumstances may be more complex than the rigid color line cemented during the Jim Crow era in the United States. The Dutch prehistory of colonial expansion from the Cape into Asia, too, disrupted the black-and-white grid of the British Empire. The popularity of minstrel shows, which Thelwell sees as an indicator of anti-Blackness, is further complicated by colonial competition and the cultural interdependencies of various subalterns. Transoceanic perspectives are therefore indispensable.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cMinstrelsy was globalized because of the increasing influence of American culture on nations such as imperial Britain \u2026. It was also globalized by the appropriation of the form by colonized Black nations and communities eager to engage in and construct a transatlantic conversation among different Black populations,\u201d as Louis Chude-Sokei underscores in <em>The Last \u201cDarky.\u201d<\/em><span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn157\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref157\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>157<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Dillon likewise calls for deeper reflection on transatlantic entanglements: <\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"tsquotation\">I would posit the temporal priority of an Atlantic performance tradition and argue that American minstrelsy overwrites a history of colonialism and anti-colonial revolt as well, replacing and erasing this broader geopolitical frame with one of nationalism and racism in which a white\/black binary secures the force of white creole nationalism. Ironically, both nineteenth-century blackface minstrel performers and twentieth- and twenty-first century scholars of blackface minstrelsy have emphasized minstrelsy\u2019s status as one of the earliest <em>indigenous <\/em>American musical and theatrical forms.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn158\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref158\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>158<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The Cape carnivalesque \u201cCoons\u201d were not part of the bourgeois-colonial &#173;theater context that Thelwell examines. Instead, their blackface operated as a sign of an urban, creolized imagined elsewhere, underscoring the environmental dimension of referentiality rather than the racist representational function of the mask Thelwell describes. The Cape Townian use of carnival blackface therefore transposes the figurative into the ornamental.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn159\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref159\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>159<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of apartheid, blackface was replaced by glitter makeup, which typically covered the entire head. In a photograph taken during a carnival competition at Athlone Stadium, two D6 Raw supporters display their club affiliation in a way that faintly echoes Kewpie\u2019s glamorous drag. The metamorphosis of blackface into glittering ornamentation does not simply decolonize a racist tradition; rather, it underlines the specific aesthetic quality of a mode of appearing that had already shaped the use of blackface in preapartheid Cape Town. The ornamental glitter makeup, covering the entire head, accentuates the Klopse\u2019s outfit colors instead of the face, effectively making individual features disappear within the collective assemblage. It is therefore about referencing the social environment rather than serving as a representational or disfiguring mask.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn160\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref160\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>160<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As a second skin, the makeup does not represent a person but instead signifies connections to fellow dancers, transforming the carnival into a form of performative commoning<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a collective assertion of the right to appear together.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn161\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref161\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>161<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In this sense, the carnivalesque street scenes strongly resonate with the way Kewpie\u2019s posse dragged through the rubble of District Six.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019.jpg\" alt=\"A color photo shows two men with glitter-painted heads inscribed \u201cRaw,\u201d wearing colorful clothing.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1050\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7317\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/11_Mr.-Raw-Mr.-Raw-Carnival-Athlone-Stadium-Cape-Flats-2019-850x638.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 11:<\/b> Mr. Raw &amp; Mr. Raw, Carnival, Athlone Stadium, Cape Flats, 2019. Photo: Evelyn Annu\u00df.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Challenging conventional interpretations of the face, the defacement produced by carnivalesque glitter aligns with another theater of minor, that is, nonrepresentational mimesis<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn162\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref162\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>162<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>one that had long resisted hegemonic performance regimes in Old Europe and continued to shadow the history of \u201crespectable\u201d stage performances, despite the supposed expulsion of the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">harlequin<\/span>. Perhaps within this folk-theatrical, genealogically interrupted undercurrent of carnival, new alliances emerged across time and space, notwithstanding the comic mask\u2019s appropriation for racist entertainment. In this sense, Cape blackface and its afterlife lend a kind of glamorous, creolized <em>survie<\/em> to the class-specific connotations of the dark mask of the <em>comici<\/em> in precolonial European <em>commedia.<\/em><span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn163\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref163\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>163<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>These ornamental masks that accompany dance and musical performances evoke an \u201cexcessive mimesis\u201d that tends to disrupt order.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn164\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref164\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>164<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Balke reads mimesis as performative, generative, and somatic<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and thus precisely not as anthropomorphic representation, as petrified imitation. By emphasizing the constitutive dirtiness, that is, the <em>messiness of the mimetic<\/em>, to use his terminology, Balke highlights a specific potentiality of performing: the potentiality for referential and affective multidirectionality, of \u201cqueering\u201d bourgeois-anthropocentric notions of representation.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn165\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref165\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>165<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Implicitly drawing on Gilles Deleuze\u2019s and F\u00e9lix Guattari\u2019s notion of becoming-minoritarian<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>that is, of becoming nomadic,<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn166\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref166\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>166<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> he foregrounds a potential to reject control.<\/p>\n<p>What is described here as constitutive of mimetic practices is reflected in the Cape Town Carnival as a creolized cultural technique of making oneself similar.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn167\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref167\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>167<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The carnivalesque transposition of blackface onto the streets of a colonial port city such as Cape Town<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and its rebellious afterlife<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>offers insight into people\u2019s capacity to relate to elsewhere, beyond their immediate surroundings. In this respect, Atjas and Coons in Cape Town have always already been reflexively indigenized. However, this insight, inherent to the local carnival, remains obscured if one readily assumes a general representational function of the mask and projects its racialized charge in the US context onto differently situated forms of use.<\/p>\n<p>The dirty facing of this carnival, which locally purloins and resignifies a quotation from globalized mass culture, thus reveals a specific disposition of reception. The creolized blackface resists the \u201cfaceism\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn168\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref168\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>168<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> that anthropomorphizes the mask and interprets the grotesque as suprahistorical<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>detached from its surroundings and its use<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>seeing it instead as the same racist distortion of an \u201cactual\u201d face across time and place. The Cape Town blackface quotation therefore challenges interpretations that attribute an almost absolute power to hegemonic control over references. It underscores the possibility for collective \u201creappropriation\u201d and, in doing so, highlights its relationship to other modes of potentially conflicting drag.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"3\">Blackface, Moffies<\/h4>\n<p>In 1940, a year before Kewpie\u2019s birth, an anonymous letter to the editor in the <em>Cape Standard<\/em> complained about drag queens and the carnival. \u201cMoffies,\u201d it claimed, \u201cshould be in a hospital or some similar place, away from the public.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn169\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref169\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>169<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The policing plea for their internment was justified as follows: \u201cThey are sexually abnormal<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>hermaphroditic in a pitiable condition, physically and mentally; the very thought of them should be repulsive to all but the scientists.\u201d Drag queens, the letter continued, viewed with \u201calmost sick \u2026 disgust,\u201d were linked to the inner-city street carnival, where they played a special role as lead dancers, exposing the intersection of a temporary state of exception with queer everyday practices. The letter also referred to blackface as racial drag<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and connected it to gender bending: Moffie Konserts (drag shows) and Coon Carnivals, it argued, confirmed the supposed primitiveness of the Coloureds and would reinforce claims of European superiority.<\/p>\n<p>Written under the name \u201cColoured Student\u201d and positioned as the voice of the educated classes, the letter follows bourgeois interpellations of \u201crespectability\u201d under colonial rule. By demarcating queer, deviant modes of &#173;appearance that blurred existing classifications, the letter also affirmed the hegemonic <em>dispositif<\/em> of representation. More than a mere rejection of &#173;supposedly &#173;inferior depictions, it exposes a deeper fear of performances \u201ctoo slippery \u2026 to police.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn170\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref170\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>170<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In this sense, the letter illustrates how colonial strategies of divide and rule seeped into understandings of respectable representation, transforming them into a call for policing.<\/p>\n<p>The demand to lock up drag queens, however, did not go unchallenged: \u201cThe information that Coloured Student gives about their sex is indeed enlightening \u2026 and it is apparent that he must have taken a lot of trouble to obtain information.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn171\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref171\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>171<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Read against the grain, the sarcastically phrased letter highlights the entanglement of gender bending and blackface<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>linking the public visibility of supposedly <em>dirty bodies<\/em> and <em>dirty faces<\/em> to a broader connection between queering and creolization. What is often treated as oppositional<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>drag as a queer counterhegemonic practice and blackface as hegemonic-racist defacement<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>appears deeply intertwined in the context of the Cape. This connection is already evident in one of the earliest newspaper references to a drag queen performance during carnival. <em>Coloured Coons\u2019 Gay Carnival<\/em>, published in the <em>Cape Times<\/em> on January&#160;3, 1930, describes the fusion of gender bending and blackface through minor, carnivalesque mimesis: \u201cHe is dressed in burlesque female attire, and carries a tiny parasol. His voice is carried away by the wind but his antics draw periodical bursts of delight from the spectators as he rolls his white eyeballs or prances up and down.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn172\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref172\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>172<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In this regard, the link drawn by Coloured Student is not plucked out of thin air.<\/p>\n<p>Later sources make the local relationship between drag and blackface even more explicit. \u201cPHA 3155 CT Coons 005\u201d is the archival signature of a photograph housed in the National Library of South Africa in Cape Town. Its call number refers to the carnival\u2019s former name, as it was known from the nineteenth century onward, while the image itself suggests a queer citation of blackface<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>\u201creminiscent,\u201d as it were, of Kewpie\u2019s drag scene. Shot by an unnamed photographer on January&#160;4, 1961<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>before the forced removals<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the photograph captures Wale Street, which connects District Six and the Bo-Kaap. Intended as a press image for the <em>Cape Times<\/em> (southern Africa\u2019s first daily newspaper, established in 1876), it was probably never published and ultimately ended up in the archives as trash, so to speak. Unlike Kewpie\u2019s personal photographs, its collection history is fragmented, and there is no known biographical information about the people depicted. Yet this very absence allows for a reading that prioritizes the analysis of modes of appearance over retrospective projections of identity by its viewers onto its subjects.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies.jpg\" alt=\"A black-and-white photo shows a carnival parade with a drag queen, a lead dancer, and a group of children in light costumes, with parasols and in blackface, dancing in the street while spectators stand at the roadside.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"1045\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7318\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies-300x224.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies-1024x764.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies-150x112.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies-768x573.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/12_Carnival-Cape-Town-Wale-Street-Ecke-St.-George-fruehe-1960er-Jahre-vermutlich-Honolulu-Dainty-Darkies-850x634.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class =\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 12:<\/b> Carnival, Cape Town, Wale Street at the corner of St. George, early 1960s, probably the Honolulu Dainty Darkies. National Library of South Africa, Cape Town (PHA 3155 CT Coons 005).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The carnival image foregrounds an unknown drag queen. It is impossible to determine whether their engagement with gender bending extended beyond carnival<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>like Kewpie\u2019s<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>or remained solely a festive performance. This \u201ctrouble to obtain information\u201d underscores how the boundaries between carnival and queer everyday life in the Cape are not so clear-cut.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn173\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref173\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>173<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Taken a few years before Kewpie\u2019s well-documented images, this photograph already bears witness to a form of mimetic dragging<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a transgressive form of embodied, danced performance that exceeds fixed notions of gender and identity. The drag queen depicted leads a train of dancers in minstrel costumes. In this sense, the image presents dragging not only as a performative act but also as a dynamic of being dragged along<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>perhaps less in the sense of gravitational pull and more in the joyous momentum of collectively making an appearance. Visually, what connects the drag queen to the dancers in tow is the mask they share: a specific form of blackface that anticipates the function of later glamour makeup. The image intertwines dragging and blackfacing against the backdrop of Cape Town\u2019s fraught (post)colonial history<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>marked by exploitative labor, segregationist policies, and the racialized aesthetics of divide and rule that continue to shape its creolized carnival.<\/p>\n<p>Their body is clearly in motion at the moment the picture is taken. Only their left leg is visible. The dress accentuates their broad shoulders and muscular arms. They appear to be waving a dark tulle skirt in front of their stomach, raised at an angle as they shift their weight onto their supporting leg. Their head is covered with a kind of cap. Their outfit contrasts with the carnival-like male costumes of those dancing diagonally and at a slight distance behind them<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a <em>voor-loper <\/em>seemingly in mid-jump, throwing one leg forward; an advance dancer ahead of the group in a top hat with a conducting baton; children with parasols; and a few adults. At the same time, their made-up face corresponds with the masks of the other dancers: their right eye and overemphasized mouth are painted white, while their left eye and nose area are blackened. However, unlike the grotesque masks of US minstrel shows, where racialized distortion serves as a pejorative defacement, this makeup follows a different logic. Here, the reference to skin color is replaced by lines of flight that touch or cross each other<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>both within the photograph and beyond its edges. These lines of flight potentially decenter the viewer\u2019s gaze, connecting the drag queen<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>despite their physical distance<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>to the masked figures behind them. Drag and carnival are linked here in a particular way: through ornamentalized face masks that do not merely grotesquely exaggerate the eyes and mouth in an interplay of black and white makeup but instead translate these features into a new constellation<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>one that diffracts stereotypical representations and highlights the fluid connections between bodies. The relationships among the performers are shaped by visual contrasts and correspondences that suggest rhythmic resonances. The drag queen\u2019s mirror-inverted, ornamental face paint visually connects them to the <em>voorloper<\/em> dancing behind; their complementary makeup suggests that the two appear to be dragging along the rest of the dancers, with whom they share the overemphasized mouth, forming a loose chorus. It is as though the music animating the dancers has found a visual echo in their makeup.<\/p>\n<p>Together, the people stage a play of possible, asignifying modes of relating.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn174\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref174\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>174<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Their mode of appearing in the picture deterritorializes the individual body, exempting it from its representational function. Instead, it exposes the relational, tactile moment of this carnival, radiating outward into its surroundings and potentially resisting apartheid through blackface. In the photo, these living ornaments function not as instruments of derogatory, distorting imitation but as catalysts for mass assembly.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn175\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref175\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>175<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> And it is precisely this function that the drag queen allegorizes, interweaving queer and creolized mimesis.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn176\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref176\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>176<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In terms of gender history, Cape Coloured carnival is largely a homosocial affair; traditionally, men have taken on most of the stereotyped roles, while women have been primarily responsible for its infrastructure.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn177\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref177\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>177<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Moreover, carnival historiography often either ignores drag queens entirely or treats them merely as marginalized gay figures; conversely, within gay historiography, carnivalesque gender bending is often too readily subsumed into a broader gay community history.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn178\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref178\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>178<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> As a result, either the figure itself or its context tends to be overlooked. Despite critiques of the carnival<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>its complicities, its homosociality, and so on<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>it is precisely this so-called moffie figure that reveals the queer potential of creolized modes of cultural performance. This becomes all the more evident when juxtaposed with colonial-apologetic forms of essentialized self-representation and their genealogical claims.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"4\">Reenacting<\/h4>\n<p>The history of propaganda mass stagings legitimizing settler colonialism in South Africa began in 1910, at a time when the street carnival was already visually dominated by blackface. That year saw the performance of the South African Pageant of Union, a spectacle featuring over 5,000 participants, marking South Africa\u2019s entry into the age of political mass stagings.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn179\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref179\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>179<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Nostalgic depictions of colonial history dominated, with Jan van Riebeeck\u2019s landing in Table Bay in 1652 serving as the <em>Urszene<\/em>. Some audience members may have recognized a model for this Dutch-flagged scene: Charles Davidson Bell\u2019s 1851 historicist painting, in which van Riebeeck, surrounded by his soldiers, addresses a group of \u201cnatives\u201d positioned lower in the composition. In any case, the scenic authentication of a <em>Herrenvolk<\/em> and its territorial claim asserted by the painting relied on the theatricalization of van Riebeeck\u2019s arrival, drawing from colonial visual arts. What appeared as a reenactment was, in fact, a performative imitation of a painted colonial imaginary.<\/p>\n<p>The contrast between these colonial stagings and the aesthetic register of carnival becomes even more apparent when considering how each engages with performativity. While propaganda spectacles relied on a colonial visual culture that kept performativity latent, mimetic dancing contradicted hegemonic representational politics and always held the potential to erupt into revolt. Other key historical reenactments and tableaux vivants in South Africa\u2019s political history illustrate this dynamic. In 1938, the Boer migration into the continent\u2019s interior was staged as the folkloristic Great Trekprocession. In 1952, under apartheid rule, the Van Riebeeck Festival celebrated 300 years of colonial history, serving as a platform for negotiating and communicating competing historical narratives. This was particularly evident in the representation of the so-called Cape Malay Community, as I.&#160;D. du Plessis, Commissioner of Coloured Affairs in the Ministry of Home Affairs, termed the Muslim-creole population. Classified as a subcategory of Coloured, this group was retroactively assigned a shared origin story, beginning with the arrival of Sheikh Joseph at the Cape in 1694. The pageant thus functioned as part of a broader, strategically invented tradition that essentialized and categorized cultural identities to legitimize apartheid policies.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the \u201cMalays\u201d were intended to serve as a surrogate for Afrikaans customs. \u201cTogether with their language, the Cape Malays have lost any songs which their forefathers may have brought from the East,\u201d du Plessis wrote in his 1972 study <em>The Cape Malays<\/em>, justifying his mission to claim them for governmental purposes.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn180\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref180\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>180<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At the height of apartheid, du Plessis also intervened in the local carnival, attempting to co-opt it as a state-controlled cultural instrument. His goal was to replace the \u201ccooning\u201d of the streets, to use the term current at the time, with an apartheid-sanctioned performance of <em>Nederlandse liedjes<\/em> and \u201ctraditional\u201d Afrikaans culture. As the carnival became increasingly regimented, it also became a contested form of collective performance. It was precisely the creolized, carnivalesque blackface associated with dragging<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a form that defied genealogical classification and resisted attempts to control its signification<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>that clashed with apartheid ideology. Rather than being affirmed by the regime, blackface was rejected<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>perhaps precisely because of the uncanny parallels between South African Coloureds and Black performers from the United States. Creolized people, positioned with relative privileges within the Cape\u2019s racial hierarchy and in a broader global context, disrupted the rigid racial binaries that apartheid sought to enforce.<\/p>\n<p>Later, blackface did indeed subvert the reception of official propaganda. In 1988, just a few years before its collapse, the apartheid regime attempted to restage South Africa\u2019s colonial history. Instead of commemorating the arrival of van Riebeeck, it marked the five-hundredth anniversary of Bartolomeu Dias\u2019s landing<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>the Portuguese colonial power that had reached the Cape before the VOC. This event was staged as a tableau vivant on the Mossel Bay beach, which was still reserved for Blankes. Conceived by Marie Hamman, the spectacle once again dramatized and contained intracolonial tensions in the final years of apartheid. Leslie Witz describes \u201cwhat made spectators gasp in astonishment\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn181\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref181\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>181<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>: amid widespread boycotts by the marginalized population and political friction leading up to the event, the role of the Khoikhoi was reportedly played by white performers<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>allegedly wearing Afro wigs and dark makeup.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn182\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref182\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>182<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Thus, upon his arrival on the coast, the Dias figure encountered Khoikhoi impersonators who evoked carnivalesque blackface. At a historical moment when the \u201cothers\u201drefused to participate in apartheid\u2019s representational spectacle, the blackened face became a site of disruption. The established <em>dispositif<\/em> of colonial reenactments<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>which had affirmed white supremacy through mass spectacles since the 1910s<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>was suddenly thrown into question. The obviously arbitrary mask, reminiscent of the so-called Coon Carnival of \u201cthe Coloureds,\u201d undermined the founding narrative of apartheid, challenging the gestus of \u201cthis has been.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person.jpg\" alt=\"A color photo shows two people posing for the camera in white and pink costumes on a parking lot.\" width=\"1400\" height=\"933\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-7319\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person.jpg 1400w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person-1024x682.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person-150x100.jpg 150w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/13_Mogamat-Kafunta-Benjamin-und-unbekannte-Person-850x566.jpg 850w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1400px) 100vw, 1400px\" \/><br \/>\n<span class=\"caption-text\"><b>Figure 13:<\/b> Mogamat Kafunta Benjamin and unknown friend, Carnival, nearby Green Point Track, Cape Town, undated, around 1990. Melvyn Matthews Private Collection (Cape Town).<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Involuntarily, this living image exposed its kinship with the grotesque-ornamental masks of an obviously artificial imagined elsewhere<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>masks that acknowledge their own fictitious nature. At the same time, this revealed a fundamental distinction between minor carnivalesque mimesis and the rigid demands of propaganda representation: queer, creolized performance practices remain acutely aware of the fabrication of representation and the potential for referential slippage<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>precisely what propaganda reenactments must suppress. By 1988, this complicit mode of representation was no longer capable of essentializing \u201cnatives\u201d or reaffirming the colonial narrative. Shortly before the long-overdue collapse of apartheid, attempts to stage reenactments that framed history<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>from the colonial landing to the victory of the National Party<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>as a linear success story had lost their efficacy. Representation could no longer fulfill its political function, as street carnival, with its ornamentalized blackface, had evolved beyond a temporary state of exception. By 1988, Blankes with their black-painted faces and their wigs inadvertently revealed that apartheid folklore was ultimately creolized dragging itself<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>while carnival coons, like carnival moffies, performatively exposed the arbitrariness of racialized and gendered classifications, as a photo of Mogamat Kafunta Benjamin from around that time shows.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn183\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref183\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>183<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">*<\/p>\n<p>Neither the carnival nor Kewpie\u2019s drag scenes offer a prospect of political<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>or even revolutionary<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>organization. But these queer, creolized modes of making a collective, loose appearance in public do bear witness to the possibility of encountering one another in a way other than identitarian. The world is creolizing itself, \u201cle monde se cr\u00e9olise,\u201d Glissant wrote in the 1990s in response to the&#160;longue dur\u00e9e&#160;of colonial contexts of violence.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn184\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref184\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>184<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> At the time when apartheid collapsed after the end of the Cold War, he added an urgent warning to what he conceived of as the creolization of the world: a warning against a \u201creturn of the identitarian.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn185\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref185\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>185<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Today, amid ongoing violent injustice and majoritarian identity-based interest politics-exacerbated by the global neoliberalization that followed the Cold War<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>Glissant\u2019s warning seems painfully urgent<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>which is also to say: it is proving useful elsewhere. Were the ANC to fail in ensuring that Zulus, Blacks, Coloureds, Indians, and Whites could live together peacefully in South Africa, Glissant claimed, something would be threatened or even lost for humanity and our future in the twenty-first century<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>\u201cnotre avenir.\u201d<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn186\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref186\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>186<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Amid the current authoritarian drift, dominant politics seem not only to foster global decreolization, but also fascization.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn187\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref187\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>187<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> The right-wing backlash in many places and the ways in which illiberal-libertarian politics are transforming societies of control allow new nationalisms, racisms, and \u201cantigenderist\u201d resentments to proliferate.<span class=\"Hochgestellt\"><span><a href=\"#fn188\" class=\"footnote-ref\" id=\"fnref188\" role=\"doc-noteref\"><sup>188<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> And those politics, too, make use of the carnivalesque. Hence, to better understand the terror wrought by identitarian politics, I will now turn to a different historical setting, examining Nazi propaganda as a precursor to modern policies of exclusion, self-indigenization, and authoritarian fantasies of purity<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>formations that can themselves be seen as reactions to what Glissant would later call the creolization of the world. I will begin with another drag scene, shot in a Munich propaganda photo studio<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>one that appears to invert Kewpie\u2019s D6 performance and the carnival images it drags in tow.<\/p>\n<h4>Endnotes<\/h4>\n<hr>\n<ol start=\"98\">\n<li id=\"fn98\">\n<p>For a critique of District Six nostalgia, its identity-related pitfalls, and the conservative culturalist mobilization of hybridity in the context of relative privilege, see Adhikari, <em>Burdened by Race, <\/em>2013, especially Trotter, Trauma, 2013; Adhikari, Predica&#173;ments, 2013; Erasmus, <em>Coloured by History, <\/em>2001; Wicomb, Shame, 1998, <em>You Can\u2019t Get Lost, <\/em>2000. On the connection between moffie and gang culture, see Luyt, <em>Gay &#173;Language in Cape Town, <\/em>2014: 23.<a href=\"#fnref98\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn99\">\n<p>On the distinction between the South African term \u201cColoured\u201d and the US term \u201cof color,\u201d see Erasmus, <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 20<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>21.<a href=\"#fnref99\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn100\">\n<p>On pencil tests and hair politics, see Erasmus, \u201cHair Politics,\u201d 2000.<a href=\"#fnref100\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn101\">\n<p>In the Population Registration Act No. 30 of 1950, \u201cColoured\u201d is negatively defined as \u201cnot a white person or a native\u201d; see Erasmus\u2019s introduction to <em>Coloured by History, <\/em>2001: 13<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>28, here: 18; <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 35. See also Davids\u2019s introduction to the <em>Safundi <\/em>specialissue, <em>Sequins, Self &amp; Struggle<\/em>, 2017: 113<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>114.<a href=\"#fnref101\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn102\">\n<p>For a critique of \u201cmiscegenation,\u201d see Nyong\u2019o, <em>Amalgamation Waltz, <\/em>2009: 74<em>; <\/em>for a critique of corresponding sexualizations of \u201ccolouredness\u201d with regard to District Six, see Ramsden-Karelse, \u201cMoving,\u201d 2020: 421.<a href=\"#fnref102\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn103\">\n<p>See Erasmus, \u201cCaribbean Critical Thought,\u201d 2025; Stuart Hall reads \u201ccreolization as the process of \u2018indigenization,\u2019 which prevents any of the constitutive elements<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>either colonizing or colonized<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>from preserving their purity or authenticity,\u201d 2015: 18. Gordon calls this \u201cnewly indigenous\u201d (<em>Creolizing Political Theory, <\/em>2014: 170). In contrast to this praxeological perspective, see today\u2019s supposedly decolonial projections on indigeneity as cosmic environmental knowledge, such as in Weber, <em>Indigenialit\u00e4t, <\/em>2018.<a href=\"#fnref103\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn104\">\n<p>See Adhikari, <em>Burdened by Race, <\/em>2013; Erasmus, <em>Coloured by History, <\/em>2001; \u201cCreolization,\u201d 2011.<a href=\"#fnref104\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn105\">\n<p>See Erasmus, \u201cCreolization,\u201d 2011: 640. On the historical sustainability of racializing attributions, preceded by processes of creolization, see Martin, \u201cJazz,\u201d 2008: 11<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>116; on creolized modes of performing, with reference to Glissant, see Martin, \u201cImaginary Ocean,\u201d 2008; Sounding, 2013. <a href=\"#fnref105\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn106\">\n<p>Erasmus, \u201cCreolization,\u201d 2011: 645; see also <em>Coloured by History, <\/em>2001: 16; <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 84<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>87. Biologistic colonial racism was prefigured in the anti-Judaic and anti-Muslim politics of <em>limpieza de sangre <\/em>directed against converts, i. e., the propaganda of blood purity from the fifteenth century onwards<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>that is, during the Reconquista. This prefiguration is indicated via the Spanish etymology, <em>creollo<\/em>. On Portuguese Iberian colonialism and the introduction of a new mode of production based on enslavement, see Gorender, <em>Colonial Slavery, <\/em>2022.<a href=\"#fnref106\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn107\">\n<p>Cited in Erasmus, <em>Coloured by History, <\/em>2001: 18; see Erasmus, <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 87<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>92; Reddy, \u201cThe Politics of Naming,\u201d 2001: 74.<a href=\"#fnref107\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn108\">\n<p>On the reciprocal conditionality of contact zones, which calls binaries into question, see Pratt, <em>Imperial Eyes, <\/em>2008.<a href=\"#fnref108\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn109\">\n<p>On <em>bare labor<\/em>, which reformulates Benjamin\u2019s notion of \u201cbare life\u201d (\u201cCritique of Violence<em>,<\/em>\u201d2002: 236<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>252; \u201cblo\u00dfes Leben,\u201d \u201cZur Kritik der Gewalt,\u201d II.1., 1991, 179<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>203) in the context of colonial hyperexploitation, see Dillon, <em>New World Drama<\/em>, 2014: 133; \u201cthe distance between capitalist production and primitive accumulation should be viewed as spatial rather than temporal\u201d (35). From a global historical perspective on bare capital, see Zeuske, <em>Handbuch Geschichte der Sklaverei, <\/em>2013: 613; Torabully and Carter, \u201cCoolitude,\u201d 2002. On the plantation system, see Wolford, \u201cThe Plantationocene,\u201d 2021; Beckert, <em>Empire of Cotton, <\/em>2014. <a href=\"#fnref109\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn110\">\n<p>Diefenbach, <em>Speculative Materialism, <\/em>2025: 188, Chapter 2, \u201cHistory and Ontology: Holland\u2019s Historical Untimeliness,\u201d on the historical nonsimultaneity and specificity of the Dutch accumulation regime<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>with reference to Wallerstein\u2019s <em>The Modern World-System II <\/em>(2011: 36<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>73). On European expansion into the Asian region, see Osterhammel, <em>Die Entzauberung, <\/em>1998.<a href=\"#fnref110\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn111\">\n<p>Diefenbach, <em>Speculative Materialism, <\/em>2025, Chapter 2, \u201cHistory and Ontology: Holland\u2019s Historical Untimeliness.\u201d<a href=\"#fnref111\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn112\">\n<p>Gilroy, <em>Black Atlantic, <\/em>1993: Gilroy\u2019s concept has since been criticized in several respects<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>with regard to its Atlantic focus, the lack of reflection on gender, more fluid forms of Othering and hyperexploitation, and indenture. On the necessary systematic reformulation of this concept with regard to the Indian Ocean and the transcontinental network of ports, see Hofmeyr: \u201cthe Indian Ocean makes a difference&#160;to the question of \u2018who is a slave\u2019 \u2026 the Atlantic model has become invisibly normative\u201d; \u201cThe Black Atlantic,\u201d 2007, on 14; see also Tinsley, \u201cQueer Atlantic,\u201d 2008, as well as Avery and Richards, <em>Black Atlantic, <\/em>2023; Erasmus, <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 2<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>6; Hawley, <em>India in Africa, <\/em>2008; Ledent et al., <em>New Perspectives, <\/em>2012. <a href=\"#fnref112\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn113\">\n<p>On the gendering of indentured labor, see Hofmeyr, \u201cThe Black Atlantic,\u201d 2007; on the gender history of colonial violence and so-called primitive accumulation, see Federici, <em>Caliban, <\/em>2018; <em>Re-enchanting the World, <\/em>2019. <a href=\"#fnref113\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn114\">\n<p>See van de Geijn-Verhoeven et al., <em>Domestic Interiors, <\/em>2002: 131<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>134 (\u201cFrom Asia to the Cape\u201d).<a href=\"#fnref114\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn115\">\n<p>Davids, \u201cIt Is Us,\u201d 2013: 90n6. <a href=\"#fnref115\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn116\">\n<p>Gilroy, <em>Black Atlantic, <\/em>1993: 4. <a href=\"#fnref116\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn117\">\n<p>On the political potentiality of cooperative port work and governmental difficulties to control port areas in particular, see Linebaugh and Rediker, <em>Hydra<\/em>,2000: 181, 206.<a href=\"#fnref117\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn118\">\n<p>See Dooling and Worden, \u201cSlavery in South Africa,\u201d 2017: 121.<a href=\"#fnref118\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn119\">\n<p>On the corresponding migration flows, their causes, and joint revolts by enslaved and ship people, see Bickford-Smith et al., <em>Cape Town, <\/em>1999.<a href=\"#fnref119\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn120\">\n<p>See Adhikari, \u201cPredicaments<em>,<\/em>\u201d2013: x. <a href=\"#fnref120\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn121\">\n<p>See Bickford-Smith et al., <em>Cape Town, <\/em>1999: 112; Haron, \u201cEarly Cape Muslims,\u201d 2017: 138; on the visual technology of racialized differentiation, see also Erasmus\u2019s chapter \u201cThe Look,\u201d <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 49<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>75.<a href=\"#fnref121\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn122\">\n<p>See Adhikari, \u201cPredicaments,\u201d 2013.<a href=\"#fnref122\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn123\">\n<p>Robert Semple, <em>Walks<\/em>, 1805: 26; cited in Bickford-Smith et al., <em>Cape Town, <\/em>1999: 89.<a href=\"#fnref123\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn124\">\n<p>On the tavern of the seas, see Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 53; see also Bickford-Smith, \u201cThe Origins,\u201d 1990: 35<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>38; Corrigall and Marsden, \u201cDistrict Six,\u201d 2020: 13. On the fluid topographies of places of passage such as seaports and pleasure venues see Meynen, <em>Inseln und Meere, <\/em>2020: 365<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>366; on transatlantic \u201cmotley crews\u201d Linebaugh and Rediker, <em>Hydra<\/em>, 2000. On the \u201cmotley crew,\u201d einen \u201cbuntscheckigen Haufen<em>,<\/em>\u201d see Marx, <em>Das Kapital <\/em>I, MEW 23, 1968: 268; on wandering fools in the European early modern period, their relatives, see also Amslinger et al., <em>Lose Leute, <\/em>2019.<a href=\"#fnref124\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn125\">\n<p>Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 92.<a href=\"#fnref125\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn126\">\n<p>On the gang history of Cape Town, see Pinnock, <em>Gang Town, <\/em>2016.<a href=\"#fnref126\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn127\">\n<p>Erasmus, <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 6.<a href=\"#fnref127\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn128\">\n<p>See Quijano, \u201cColoniality,\u201d 2007.<a href=\"#fnref128\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn129\">\n<p>Erasmus, <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 4; with reference to Pearson, <em>Indian Ocean<\/em>, 2003.<a href=\"#fnref129\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn130\">\n<p>On nonbinary forms of gendering in Southeast Asia, see Davies, <em>Gender Diversity<\/em>, 2011; \u201cGender and Sexual Plurality,\u201d 2018, \u201cIslamic Identity,\u201d 2019; see also Ismoyo, \u201cDecolonizing Gender,\u201d 2020, with regard to the issue of the Sulawesi Bugis as \u201ctransgender spiritual advisors.\u201d On the Bugis slaves abducted from Batavia and brought to the Cape of Good Hope, see Zeuske, <em>Handbuch Geschichte der Sklaverei, <\/em>2013: 626. On the diverse criticism of the binarization of \u201cthe Other,\u201d see Lugones, \u201cColoniality of Gender,\u201d 2023; \u201cDecolonial Feminism,\u201d 2010; Manchanda, \u201cQueering the Pashtun,\u201d 2014: 5.<a href=\"#fnref130\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn131\">\n<p>On the history of carnival in the Cape, see Martin, <em>Coon Carnival<\/em>, 1999; \u201cThe Famous,\u201d 2010; Oliphant, <em>Changing Faces, <\/em>2013; on music, see Gaulier and Martin, <em>Cape Town Harmonies, <\/em>2017. <a href=\"#fnref131\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn132\">\n<p>See Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 33.<a href=\"#fnref132\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn133\">\n<p>See Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 31<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>34, 61<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>63, 89. <a href=\"#fnref133\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn134\">\n<p>On Guy Fawkes Day, the commemoration of the Gunpowder Plot (1605) against the Protestant King James&#160;I of England and Ireland and the suppression of this revolt, as well as the specific transposition of the puppets into the so-called Cape Coloured carnival of Cape Town, see Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 31<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>35. <a href=\"#fnref134\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn135\">\n<p>See Bickford-Smith, <em>Ethnic Pride, <\/em>1995: 112<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>113.<a href=\"#fnref135\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn136\">\n<p>Thanks to Kenny Misroll and Angel Mustafa McCooper for sharing their private collection of photographs of gorillas, Indians, devils and matadors, i. e., of other depictions than that collected in the archives. On the corresponding Bits and Pieces or Odds and Ends, whose names refer to the dragging along of heterogeneity, see Davids, \u201cIt Is Us,\u201d 2013; Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 112.<a href=\"#fnref136\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn137\">\n<p>See Davids, \u201cIt Is Us,\u201d 2013.<a href=\"#fnref137\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn138\">\n<p>The term <em>Amerindian<\/em> is obviously colonially charged, evoking Columbus\u2019s projections onto the population he encountered at first contact on the American continent, and seems to claim a homogeneous ensemble of different people. However, I have decided to use it to mark this colonial legacy instead of erasing it from terminology by substituting it with another term that is still subject to colonial epistemology<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>be it <em>First Nation<\/em> or <em>Native American<\/em>. These terms refer to genealogical figures of thought, established by European colonialism, and the essentialization of rootedness. This obscures the possibility of thinking in terms of political violence connected to extractivism and hyperexploitation, i. e., modes of production, without substantializing the relation between people, blood relations, and land. For a critique of a respective genealogical thinking and the ideologization of indigeneity, see, e. g., Erasmus, \u201cWho Was Here First?,\u201d 2020.<a href=\"#fnref138\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn139\">\n<p>On the Atjas, which began to appear at the end of the nineteenth century, see Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 93<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>94; \u201cImaginary Ocean,\u201d 2008: 68<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>69.<a href=\"#fnref139\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn140\">\n<p>With a view to Indianism in the United States, see Deloria, <em>Playing Indian, <\/em>2022. <a href=\"#fnref140\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn141\">\n<p>On <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Jim Crow<\/span>, see Lhamon, <em>Raising Cain, <\/em>1998; <em>Jump Jim Crow, <\/em>2003; on its European folk-theatrical prehistory, see Rehin, \u201cHarlequin Jim Crow,\u201d 1975. Nyong\u2019o calls Jim Crow \u201cdarkened but clearly not African featured\u201d; see <em>Amalgamation Waltz, <\/em>2009: 110. On minstrel shows and blackface, see Bean et al., <em>Inside the Minstrel Mask, <\/em>1996; Chude-Sokei, <em>The Last \u201cDarky,\u201d <\/em>2006; Cockrell, <em>Demons, <\/em>1997; Lott, <em>Love and Theft<\/em>, 1993; Meer, <em>Uncle Tom Mania, <\/em>2005; Pickering, \u201cThe Blackface Clown,\u201d 2003; Roediger, <em>Wages of Whiteness, <\/em>1991; Taylor and Austen, <em>Darkest America, <\/em>2012. On the connection between female impersonationand blackface in the minstrel context, see Garber, <em>Vested Interests, <\/em>1992: 267<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>303; Mahar, <em>Burnt Cork Mask, <\/em>1999: 343; Lott<em>, Love and Theft, <\/em>1993; Strausbaugh, <em>Black Like You, <\/em>2006. On the development of aesthetic forms, also Annu\u00df, \u201cBlackface,\u201d 2014; \u201cRacisms,\u201d 2024. The multisignificant mask (Cockrell, 82; Roediger, 116) stands in contrast to the \u201cother\u201d of bourgeois theater, i. e., popular theater; see Belting, <em>Faces, <\/em>2013: 63<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>83. On the critique of the \u201cgenre of the human\u201d from the perspective of Black studies focused on the United States, see Jackson, <em>Becoming Human<\/em>, 2020: 23.<a href=\"#fnref141\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn142\">\n<p>See Balme and Leonhardt, \u201cIntroduction\u201d and the special issue, \u201cTheatrical Trade Routes\u201din the <em>Journal of Global Theater History <\/em>1, no. 1, 2016; see also the special issue \u201cRoutes of Blackface\u201dedited by Cole and Davis, <em>The Drama Review <\/em>57, no. 2, and Cole, <em>Ghana\u2019s Concert Party Theatre, <\/em>2001.<a href=\"#fnref142\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn143\">\n<p>See Davis, \u201cChristy\u2019s Minstrels,\u201d 2013.<a href=\"#fnref143\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn144\">\n<p>Their repertoire also drew on minstrel genres, but they seem not to have performed in blackface; see Erlmann, \u201cA Feeling of Prejudice,\u201d 1988.<a href=\"#fnref144\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn145\">\n<p>On <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Zip Coon <\/span>and Black dandyism, see Miller, <em>Slaves to Fashion, <\/em>2009. Gibbs reads Jim Crow as a \u201csurrogate underdog\u201d (211) prefigured in the mask of the harlequin (198) and \u201cminstrelsy as a transatlantic genre,\u201d as well as \u201c<em>part <\/em>of the performance of revolutionary utopianism\u201d (179, 180); see <em>Temple of Liberty, <\/em>2014 (esp. \u201cSpartacus, Jim Crow and the Black Jokes of Revolt\u201d: 181<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>212). On the early connection between blackface and abolitionistmusicand the later bourgeoisification of the genre, see Meer, <em>Uncle Tom Mania<\/em>, 2005, esp. 25.<a href=\"#fnref145\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn146\">\n<p>On the correspondence between <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Jim Crow <\/span>and the Caribbean <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Jonkonnu<\/span>, see Dillon, <em>New World Drama<\/em>, 2014: 218; Wynter, Sambos, 1979: 155); with a view to European folk theater and the <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">arlecchino <\/span>of the <em>commedia<\/em>, also Rehin, \u201cHarlequin Jim Crow,\u201d 1975: 685. Emphasizing the \u201cflexibility of the form,\u201d he criticizes the lack of comparative perspectives in research fixated on a US perspective: \u201cThe blackface make-up \u2026 was also part of a folk tradition in which it had no racial connotation, a factor which may also help to account for widespread acceptance of minstrelsy\u201d (689). On the metatheatrical use of early forms of blackface, see Reed, <em>Rogue Performances, <\/em>2009: 21. <a href=\"#fnref146\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn147\">\n<p><em>The Cape Times<\/em>, Monday, January&#160;4, 1886.<a href=\"#fnref147\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn148\">\n<p>On the specifics of creolized (carnival) music in the Cape, see Gaulier and Martin, <em>Cape Town Harmonies, <\/em>2017; Martin, <em>Sounding<\/em>, 2013, esp.: 53<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>100<em>. <\/em>For the street parade in the city center, see, among others, the video at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=o1ItBWALzYc\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=o1ItBWALzYc<\/span><\/a>, accessed September&#160;24, 2024; for the competition at Athlone Stadium: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ovjGp7nTFCc\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ovjGp7nTFCc<\/span><\/a>, accessed September&#160;24, 2024. <a href=\"#fnref148\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn149\">\n<p>See Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 82.<a href=\"#fnref149\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn150\">\n<p>On the South African transposition of the \u201c\u2018coon,\u2019 the fashion-conscious, urban, emancipated black male,\u201d in the context not only of carnival but also of the urbanization of Zulu-speaking migrant workers, see Erlmann, \u201cSpectatorial Lust,\u201d 1999: 143. <a href=\"#fnref150\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn151\">\n<p>On the connection between the dark harlequin mask and dirty work, see Riha, <em>Commedia dell\u2019arte, <\/em>1980: 29.<a href=\"#fnref151\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn152\">\n<p>Martin, <em>Chronicle, <\/em>2007: 2<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>3; see Oliphant, <em>Changing Faces, <\/em>2013: 68; Thelwell, <em>Exporting Jim Crow, <\/em>2020: x.<a href=\"#fnref152\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn153\">\n<p>On the reception of <em>The Jazz Singer <\/em>in Cape Town, see Martin, \u201cImaginary Ocean,\u201d 2008: 69. On the diasporic use of blackface as a sign of a different, \u201cnon-white modernity,\u201d Br\u00fchwiler, \u201cBlackface in America and Africa,\u201d 2012, 141; Martin, \u201cInvincible Darkies,\u201d 2010, 439.<a href=\"#fnref153\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn154\">\n<p>Martin, \u201cImaginary Ocean,\u201d 2008: 72.<a href=\"#fnref154\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn155\">\n<p>Gilroy, <em>Postcolonial Melancholia, <\/em>2005: 37.<a href=\"#fnref155\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn156\">\n<p>Thelwell, <em>Exporting Jim Crow, <\/em>2020: 35. Dillon, on the other hand, emphasizes the heterogeneity of the transatlantic audience in the colonial context: \u201cordinances notwithstanding, blacks were admitted to the theatre on a regular basis and made up an active part of the audience.\u201d See <em>New World Drama, <\/em>2014: 141. Blackface in the Cape Town carnival, according to Martin\u2019s reading, was rather \u201can incarnation of modernity in the world of entertainment during the second half of the nineteenth century, as well as the personification of a form of cultural miscegenation shaped by relations of domination.\u201d See <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 174. <a href=\"#fnref156\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn157\">\n<p>Chude-Sokei, <em>The Last \u201cDarky,\u201d <\/em>2006: 141.<a href=\"#fnref157\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn158\">\n<p>Dillon, <em>New World Drama, <\/em>2014: 248.<a href=\"#fnref158\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn159\">\n<p>On local, creolized forms of ornamentalization, see van de Geijn-Verhoeven et al., <em>Domestic Interiors, <\/em>2002: 134, with regard to Asian designs in Cape Town.<a href=\"#fnref159\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn160\">\n<p>\u201cThe head is included in the body, but the face is not. The face is a surface,\u201d write Deleuze and Guattari; <em>A Thousand Plateaus, <\/em>1987: 170.<a href=\"#fnref160\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn161\">\n<p>On Josephine Baker\u2019s staging of skin as a modern surface phenomenon that decouples the \u201ckey signifier of cultural and racial difference\u201d from the flesh, see Cheng, <em>Second Skin, <\/em>2011, 7. <a href=\"#fnref161\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn162\">\n<p>For the European context, see M\u00fcnz, <em>Das \u201candere\u201d Theater, <\/em>1979.<a href=\"#fnref162\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn163\">\n<p>On the performative transposition of the rural comic figure, the Bergamo dialect-speaking, sooty, filthy <span class=\"Kapitaelchen_Englisch\">Arlecchino, <\/span>see Rehin, \u201cHarlequin Jim Crow,\u201d 1975. It is possible, however, that the name of the comic figure in the European <em>commedia<\/em>, zanni (denoting figures who come in mobs, with an unclear gender), also evokes the name of Black slaves in medieval Islam (zanj).<a href=\"#fnref163\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn164\">\n<p>Balke, <em>Mimesis zur Einf\u00fchrung<\/em>, 2018: 18; with regard to the reflection on dance and music (\u201ct\u00e4nzerisch-musikalische Darstellung\u201d) in Koller, <em>Die Mimesis der Antike<\/em>, 1954, esp. 120. See also Benjamin\u2019s reading of the mimetic in recourse to dance (Benjamin, \u201cDoctrine of the Similar\u201d (1933), 1979: 65<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>69\/\u201dLehre vom \u00c4hnlichen,\u201d II.1, 1991: 204<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>210). For a critique of ethnographic productions of alterity in the discourse on mimetic excess, marking the Coll\u00e8ge de Sociologie as one of Balke\u2019s references (Balke, \u201c\u00c4hnlichkeit und Entstellung,\u201d 2015), see Eidelpes, <em>Entgrenzung der Mimesis, <\/em>2018, esp. 125. On the potential of excessive mimesis to wrest the tools of mimetic capacity from colonialism, in contrast Taussig, <em>Mimesis and Alterity, <\/em>2018: 249.<a href=\"#fnref164\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn165\">\n<p>On the essential <em>messiness <\/em>of references to the respective other of \u201ca culture\u201d and their function of undermining authority, see Balke, <em>Mimesis zur Einf\u00fchrung<\/em>, 2018: 16; on their power to produce dissimilarities in the similar, see <em>Mimesis und Figura, <\/em>2016: 37<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>44; with regard to the prohibition of mimesis to subalterns in Greek antiquity: \u201c\u00c4hnlichkeit\u201d 2015: 265; on the revolt dimension of mimesis, see Balke and Linseisen, <em>Mimesis Expanded, <\/em>\u201cIntroduction\u201d: 2022: 12. This implies more than an understanding of the \u201cmessiness of identity\u201d emphasized by Puar; see <em>Terrorist Assemblages, <\/em>2007: 212. <a href=\"#fnref165\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn166\">\n<p>On becoming minoritarian, see Deleuze and Guattari, <em>A Thousand Plateaus, <\/em>1987; Balke, \u201c\u00c4hnlichkeit und Entstellung,\u201d 2015: 269.<a href=\"#fnref166\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn167\">\n<p>See Kimmich, <em>Ins Ungef\u00e4hre, <\/em>2017: 141; Bhatti and Kimmich, <em>\u00c4hnlichkeit, <\/em>2015: 26<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>referring to Samir Amin\u2019s call for a \u201c<em>right to be similar.<\/em>\u201d Amin, <em>Spectres of Capitalism, <\/em>1998: 42.<a href=\"#fnref167\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn168\">\n<p>Weigel, \u201cDas Gesicht als Artefakt,\u201d 2013: 11; Weigel, <em>Grammatologie der Bilder, <\/em>2015, esp. 267; Macho<em>, Vorbilder, <\/em>2011: 291<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>316.<a href=\"#fnref168\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn169\">\n<p>Coloured Student: \u201cSlashing Attack on Coloured Coons: I Don\u2019t Like Them and Give My Reasons. \u2018Disgusting and Degrading Festivals,\u2019\u201d <em>Cape Standard, <\/em>January&#160;9, 1940: 3; quoted in Martin, <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 118.<a href=\"#fnref169\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn170\">\n<p>Lhamon, <em>Jump Jim Crow, <\/em>2003: 23.<a href=\"#fnref170\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn171\">\n<p>F. Robertson, \u201cOur Readers\u2019 Views on Coons,\u201d <em>Cape Standard, <\/em>January&#160;16, 1940: 4. See Martin\u2019s compilation of other sources in <em>Chronicles, <\/em>2007.<a href=\"#fnref171\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn172\">\n<p>\u201cColoured Coons\u2019 Gay Carnival,\u201d <em>Cape Times, <\/em>January&#160;3, 1930.<a href=\"#fnref172\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn173\">\n<p>For a reading of carnival as a temporal state of exception, by contrast, see Bakhtin, <em>Rabelais, <\/em>1984<em>; <\/em>Rang, <em>Historische Psychologie des Karnevals, <\/em>1983.<a href=\"#fnref173\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn174\">\n<p>By way of contrast, see Nancy\u2019s ontologization of being-with,<em> \u00catre singulier pluriel, <\/em>2013.<a href=\"#fnref174\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn175\">\n<p>See Kracauer\u2019s thesis of the rootlessness of living ornaments of the Weimar period, <em>Das Ornament der Masse, <\/em>1977 (originally 1927): 59; <em>The Mass Ornament, <\/em>1995. <a href=\"#fnref175\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn176\">\n<p>On the prominent role of drag queens in carnival, see <em>Moffie van Hanover Park, <\/em>a popular carnival song (Pacey 2014: 111) in creolized Afrikaans originating from Melahu, the transatlantic \u201clingua franca\u201d of the colonial era (Willemse, \u201cAfrikaans,\u201d 2018), and initially written in Arabic in the Cape by deported Southeast Asian intellectuals (Worden et al., <em>Cape Town, <\/em>1998: 127; on the Bugis script used: Groenewald, Slaves, 2010). On the queer Cape variant Gayle, see Olivier, \u201cFrom Ada,\u201d 1995; see also Luyt, <em>Gay Language in Cape Town<\/em>. In Cape Afrikaans, words from Malay, the local Khoikhoi, isiXhosa, isiZulu etc. resonate and intertwine with Dutch, Portuguese, and English chunks. <a href=\"#fnref176\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn177\">\n<p>On the role of women, see Baxter, \u201cContinuity and Change,\u201d 2001; Oliphant, <em>Changing Faces, <\/em>2013: 86<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>92; on drag queens, see Pacey, \u201cEmergence,\u201d 2014: 118<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>122.<a href=\"#fnref177\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn178\">\n<p>See Martin, <em>Coon Carnival<\/em>, 1999; Thelwell, <em>Exporting Jim Crow, <\/em>2020. From the opposite perspective, they become an organic part of gay history; see Tucker, <em>Queer Visibilities, <\/em>2009. See also Chetty, \u201cA Drag,\u201d 1995.<a href=\"#fnref178\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn179\">\n<p>On the history of South African pageants, see Kruger, <em>The Drama, <\/em>1999: 23<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>47, on 1988: Witz, \u201cHistory,\u201d 2009; with a view to the Van Riebeeck Festival of 1952 and the latent colonial rivalries: Witz<em>, Apartheid\u2019s Festival, <\/em>2003. <a href=\"#fnref179\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn180\">\n<p>Du Plessis, <em>The Cape Malays, <\/em>1972: 40. Du Plessis was involved in the planning of the Group Areas, with which the population classified as nonwhite was expelled from District Six, while the Bo-Kaap remained Malays Quarter on his \u201cfolkloric\u201d initiative; see Jeppie, <em>Historical Process, <\/em>1986\/87. On du Plessis\u2019s role in the regulation of carnival during apartheid, see Gaulier and Martin, <em>Cape Town Harmonies, <\/em>2017: 7<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>8; <em>Coon Carnival, <\/em>1999: 120. On the \u201cMalays\u201d and Muslim history of the Cape, see Erasmus, <em>Race Otherwise, <\/em>2017: 110<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>112; Haron, \u201cEarly Cape Muslims,\u201d 2017; on the historicity and fluidity of classifications, see Jeppie, \u201cReclassifications,\u201d 2001; Jephta, \u201cOn Familar Roads,\u201d 2015.<a href=\"#fnref180\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn181\">\n<p>Witz, \u201cHistory,\u201d 2009: 151.<a href=\"#fnref181\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn182\">\n<p>See the photo series of the 1988 pageant, which has since surfaced at the Bartolomeu Dias Museum at Mossel Bay<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>a branch of the Western Cape Archives<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>and includes image captions. Listed as the Khoi Group are Debby and Penny Kruger, Emile Scheepers, Albert Brand, Niels Marx, and Corrie Coetzee.<a href=\"#fnref182\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn183\">\n<p>On Mogamat Benjamin, see Smith, \u201cRemebering Kafunta,\u201d 2024; as a <em>moffie voorloper<\/em>, see Oliphant, <em>Changing Faces, <\/em>2013: 36. See also the Mogamat Benjamin Collection (Ben.180), District Six Museum Archive.<a href=\"#fnref183\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn184\">\n<p>Glissant, <em>Introduction, <\/em>1996: 15. On retrospective criticism, see Erasmus: \u201cI disagree that \u2018the world is creolising\u2019 \u2026 In my reading, Glissant suggests the world might be a better place were its inhabitants to consider themselves in relation.\u201d See Creolization, 2011: 649. Mbembe takes up Glissant\u2019s thesis with regard to the living conditions of those in precarious circumstances and reformulates it as the becoming-black of the world; see <em>Critique of Black Reason, <\/em>2014.<a href=\"#fnref184\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn185\">\n<p>See, however, today\u2019s critique of unfulfilled promises of the Rainbow Nation by the Freeborn, such as Chikane, <em>Breaking a Rainbow, <\/em>2018; Wa Azania, <em>Rainbow Nation<\/em>, 2014, <em>New South Africa<\/em>, 2018. On generational differences, also Newman and DeLannoy, <em>After Freedom, <\/em>2014: 69<span class=\"EM-Dash\">\u2014<\/span>91. On the downfall of apartheid and the arrival of neoliberalism, see Godsell, \u201cColour of Capital,\u201d 2018: 53; Houston et al., \u201cParadise Lost,\u201d 2022.<a href=\"#fnref185\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn186\">\n<p>Glissant, <em>Introduction, <\/em>1996: 24; for the English translation: Glissant, <em>Introduction to a Poetics of Diversity<\/em>, 2020: 12.<a href=\"#fnref186\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn187\">\n<p>See Toscano, <em>Late Fascism, <\/em>2023.<a href=\"#fnref187\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"fn188\">\n<p>For critique, see Butler, <em>Who\u2019s Afraid, <\/em>2024.<a href=\"#fnref188\" class=\"footnote-back\" role=\"doc-backlink\">\u21a9\ufe0e<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>&nbsp; Figure 5: District Six before the forced removals, undated paper clip. National Library of South Africa, Cape Town (PHA 3709 Coons). \u201cYOU ARE NOW IN FAIRY LAND\u201d was a famous piece of graffiti on one of the houses in District Six, later demolished, whose remains are made visible in Kewpie\u2019s dragging rubble series\u2014as if &hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[270],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-7622","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-annuss-dirty-dragging-en"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v26.9 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Creolizing &#8211; mdwPress<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Creolizing &#8211; mdwPress\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"&nbsp; Figure 5: District Six before the forced removals, undated paper clip. National Library of South Africa, Cape Town (PHA 3709 Coons). \u201cYOU ARE NOW IN FAIRY LAND\u201d was a famous piece of graffiti on one of the houses in District Six, later demolished, whose remains are made visible in Kewpie\u2019s dragging rubble series\u2014as if &hellip;\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"mdwPress\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2026-03-31T09:10:02+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2026-03-31T09:29:38+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Jana Diewald\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Written by\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Jana Diewald\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Est. reading time\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"54 minutes\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Jana Diewald\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/en\/#\/schema\/person\/718d5159661e1c0dbf47804f556bf0ba\"},\"headline\":\"Creolizing\",\"datePublished\":\"2026-03-31T09:10:02+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2026-03-31T09:29:38+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/\"},\"wordCount\":10898,\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/en\/#organization\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/wordpress\/wp-content\/uploads\/download-1459070_1280.png\",\"articleSection\":[\"Annu\u00df: Dirty Dragging (en)\"],\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\"},{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.mdw.ac.at\/mdwpress\/mdwp008-004\/\",\"name\":\"Creolizing &#8211; 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